not far from 304 A. D. His works were many-on philosophy, history, mathematics, grammar, and other subjects. Among his extant works are the Life of Plotinus, a treatise on Abstinence from Meat, a hortatory Letter to Marcella (his wife), Homeric Investigations, and an allegorical treatise On the Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey. His argument Against the Christians, in fifteen books, which called forth replies from several of the fathers of the Church, is lost, as are many of his other works. Porphyry was a diligent writer, a man of good ability, who was able to learn and remember many things. His writing is simpler than that of Plotinus, whose obscure statements he sometimes makes clear, but his literary skill is not great. Christian writers. In the second century, Christian writers make their appearance in Greek literature. Before that time, the Christian writings, even when written in Greek, have no relation to Greek literature, being simple narratives, letters, and the like, composed with no reference to literary quality, though often possessing the charm of simplicity and sometimes originality of expression. But in so far as they belong to the history of any literature other than that of the Christian Church they belong to the history of Jewish literature. In the second century, when Christianity became more prominent and aroused against itself the anger of the pagans, its more learned members found it necessary to defend their faith, and they did this by means of the arts of argument which they had learned in pagan schools; for these early defenders of Christianity-apologists, as they are called-were for the most part converted pagans who had been trained in the schools of philosophy. Among the early apologists are Quadratus, whose Apology addressed to the Emperor Hadrian is lost, and Aristides of Athens, who wrote an extant Apology to Antoninus Pius, but they may be passed over. Justin Martyr is more important. He was born of pagan parents at Flavia Neapolis, in Samaria, about Justin 100 ▲. D., and was converted to Christianity in 123. He went to Rome, where he seems to have had a school of Christianity. He died a martyr between 163 and 167. His two Apologies, addressed to Marcus Antoninus, date from about 150 a. D. In his Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon he refutes some of the views of Christianity held by the Jews and informs us about his own education. The other writings attributed to Justin are of doubtful authenticity. His writing is careless and occasionally obscure, but sometimes rises to eloquence. He is regarded as the chief among the apologists. After him Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Ariston, Miltiades, and Irenæus continued the defense of Christianity, but without adding anything of great literary importance. Other apologists. The doctors Clement of The writings of the apologists were little more than letters or addresses in defense of Christianity. In the third century Christian writings become more extensive, learned, and elaborate. The apologists are succeeded by the doctors or teachers. The first of these is Clement of of the Church. Alexandria, who was born, perhaps in Greece, about 160 A. D., but settled at Alexandria about Alexandria. 180, and began to teach there about 190. In 202 or 203 he left Alexandria to escape the persecution under Septimius Severus, and seems to have spent the rest of his life in wandering. He died not far from 215 A. D. His extant writings are an Exhortation to the Greeks, urging the acceptance of Christianity; the Pedagogue, containing the main points of Christian moral teaching; and the Carpets (Stromateis), containing the chief doctrines of Christianity in connection with passages of the Old and New Testaments. He tries to show that Greek philosophy is younger than that of other peoples, and that the best part of it is derived from the Jews. He quotes much from Greek writers, often from those whose works are now lost. He is the first who uses Greek philosophical arguments in defense of Christianity. He was followed by Origen, his pupil and his successor as a teacher at Alexandria. Origen. Origen was the greatest and most learned of the doctors of the Church. He was born at Alexandria of Christian parents in 185, and studied under Clement, whom he succeeded upon his departure from Alexandria. Here he taught at least until 216. The later years of his life were occupied with journeys and teaching in many places, and he died at Tyre in 254 a. D. His writings were very numerous and are in part preserved. They consist chiefly of Commentaries on the Old and New Testaments and of Homilies or sermons. He also edited the Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. He made great use of allegory in explaining the Scriptures, and did more even than Clement to spread the ideas of Greek philosophers, especially of Plato, abroad in the Christian schools. He shows at the same time remarkable breadth of view. His book Against the So-called True Argument of Celsus is a reply to arguments against Christianty brought forward by Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher of the second century after Christ, and shows qualities similar to those of his other works. His literary merit is not great, whatever his Other Christian writers. importance in the history of Christian thought. The same may be said of his contemporary Hippolytus, of the somewhat older Methodius of Tyre, of Pamphilus of Cæsarea, and of the chronicle writer Julius Africanus. Christian literature was as yet undeveloped. CHAPTER XLI FROM CONSTANTINE TO JUSTINIAN A.D. Decline of Greek literature-Schools of oratory-Himerius, about 315-386 a. D.-Libanius, 314–393 a. D.-Themistius, about 330 to about 390 A. D.—Julian the Apostate, 331-363 A. D.-Choricius, about 430 a. D. —Achilles Tatius, fifth century (?)—Lexicographers—Orion, about 425 A. D.-Hesychius, fifth century (?)—Orus, fifth century (?)—Suidas, tenth century-Photius, second half of the ninth century-Stobæus, sixth century (?) Historians — Eunapius, about 346 to about 414 A. D. Zosimus, about 500 A. D.-Procopius, before 500 to after 562 A. D.Stephanus of Byzantium, fifth century (?)-Neoplatonism-Iamblichus, about 280 to about 350 A. D.-Hypatia, killed in 415 A. D.-Synesius, about 370-413 B. c.—Nestorius, fourth century—Plutarch, about 350– 431 A. D.-Syrianus, about 435 A. D.-Proclus, about 410-485 A. D.— Poetry-Quintus Smyrnæus, fourth century (?)-Nonnus, fourth century—Tryphiodorus, fifth century-Musæus, fifth century-Orphic poems-Sibylline oracles-The Anthology-Christian writers-Athanasius, about 295-373 A. D.-Basil of Cæsarea, about 330–379 a. D.— Gregory Nazianzene, about 338 to about 390 A. D.-Gregory of Nyssa, after 330 to 394 A. D.-St. John Chrysostom, about 345–407 a. D.--Eusebius, about 265-340 A. D.-Evagrius, 536 to about 600 A. D.—Cyril, 412444 A. D.—Theodoret, fifth century-Conclusion. Decline of THE period of two centuries from Constantine to Justinian is the last period of ancient Greek literature-a period of decline, which may be passed over rapidly. The art and learning of the sophists, literature. as well as the philosophical and ethical speculations of the Neoplatonists, faded away and became absorbed by Christianity; and Christian eloquence, after a brief period of brilliancy, sank into obscurity; history was written with little success, so far as its literary value is concerned, while poetry is represented only by artificial, imitative epics and some of the light verses of the Anthology. Schools of oratory. The schools of the sophists had been less flourishing in the last years of the third and first years of the fourth century than in the time immediately before, chiefly on account. of the political disorders of the empire. But with the new order of things under Constantine came new opportunities for the exercise of studied eloquence. Schools of oratory flourished in all the chief cities, training young men to occupy government offices. The teachers in these schools enjoyed great reputations at the time, and their oratory was much admired. Something of their lives and qualities may be learned from the Lives of the Sophists, by Eunapius, but it will be enough for us to mention a few whose principal works are preserved. Himerius. Himerius was born about 315 A. D. at Prusa, in Bithynia, but lived nearly all his life at Athens, where he had many pupils, among them the Christian orators Basil of Cæsarea and Gregory of Nazianzus. He took no part in public life, and all his speeches were either for use in his teaching or for delivery on special occasions, such as the arrival of a new governor or the visit of the orator to a new city. Twenty-four orations are preserved entire, besides fragments of others. They show a great lack of thoughts, but care in execution. They are full of reminiscences of the poets, and preserve to us a number of interesting fragments. The style is musical and poetic, but without vigor. Libanius of Antioch, who lived from 314 to 393 A. D., is the most important sophist of the time. He was educated at Antioch and Athens, and taught at Constantinople, Nicomedia, and, from 354 until his death, at Antioch. He was one of the most important per Libanius. |