sumed, but each has its own qualities. There are gold particles, stone particles, bone particles, etc. All these are arranged by Mind or Intellect. This is the great innovation of Anaxagoras. He clearly divides mind from matter. In the beginning all things were, he thought, an indistinguishable mass, until Mind arranged and grouped the particles so as to form the visible world. He believed that the moon was inhabited, and that the sun was somewhat larger than the Peloponnesus. He was not only a metaphysician, but also a man of science. He perceived that eclipses of the sun are caused by the moon, which comes between the sun and the earth. His views of life seem to have been high and noble, but he published no system of ethics. His style is clear and vigorous, but without great variety, cool, passionless, concise, and sententious. Though only seventeen fragments are preserved, they are long enough to give us a pretty good idea of his style: All things were together, infinite in number and smallness; for the smallness was infinite. And when all things were together nothing was clear on account of smallness; for air and ether encompassed all things, both being infinite, for these are most largely present in all things, both in respect to the number of particles and to volume. Everything contains particles of every kind, the Mind alone being pure and unmixed: All the other things contain a share of everything, but Mind is infinite and self-sufficient and is not mixed with anything, but is absolutely alone by itself. For if it were not by itself, but were mixed with anything else, it would have a share of all things if it were mixed with any; for in everything there is a share of everything, as I have said before; and the things mixed with it would hinder it, so that it would not control anything, as it does now that it is alone by itself. For it is the lightest of all things, and the purest, and it has all knowledge about all things and has the greatest power. The great defect in the teaching of Anaxagoras is that he apparently failed to attribute to Mind any continued and repeated influence on the world. Mind caused the particles to be arranged in the beginning, and started the world on its course of life, but after that had no further influence. Diogenes of Diogenes of Apollonia, who was somewhat younger than Anaxagoras, went back to the doctrine of Anaximenes and regarded air as the original substance. IIis doctrine is of little importance, but he wrote clear and simple prose, and is for this reason to be mentioned. "In beginning every discourse it seems to me to be necessary to make the starting-point free from ambiguity and the language simple and dignified" are the opening words of his book, and the fragments preserved show that he followed the rule thus laid down. His life extends far into the second half of the fifth century, and chronologically he belongs to the Attic period of Greek literature. His doctrine, however, and his use of the Ionic dialect place him among the earlier philosophers. Democritus. Democritus of Abdera also belongs chronologically to the Attic period. He was born about 460, and died at a very great age-over one hundred years according to some writers, not far from 360 B. C. He was often called "the laughing philosopher," as Heraclitus was called "the weeping philosopher." He traveled extensively, obscrving nature and talking with learned men. He was at Athens, where he seems to have aroused little interest, for his studies were not in line with the teachings of the sophists or of Socrates. His works, written in Ionic Greek, were numerous, relating to all branches of philosophy. Only scattered fragments have been preserved. He accepted and developed the doctrine of Leucippus, that the world consisted of atoms and void space, the difference between things being caused by the different arrangement and qualities of atoms. The soul, he thought, was a fire animating the body. There were no real gods, but there might be souls finer than those of men, which would be nearly equivalent to gods. In morals, he taught that happiness should be sought, but by moderation of the desires, not by indulgence. In many points his atomic theory of the universe. resembles modern scientific theories. Archytas. At about the time when Democritus was developing the doctrines of Leucippus, a group of Pythagoreans in Magna Græcia revived and developed the doctrines of Philolaus and Pythagoras. It will be enough to mention. Philolaus and Archytas of Tarentum. Philolaus is said to be the earliest writer among the Pythagoreans. He traveled much, and spent some time at Thebes, where Simmias and Cebes, afterward devoted to Socrates, were his pupils. His book On Nature, written in Doric Greek, was an exposition of Pythagorean doctrine. Archytas was a noted man at Tarentum, distinguished as a general, and for his practical wisdom and morality. Numerous works on philosophy and mathematics were attributed to him, but of these, as of the work of Philolaus, only fragments exist. An ode of Horace informs us that Archytas was drowned in a shipwreck on the Apulian coast. 1 The study of medicine is related to the physical researches of the Ionic philosophers, and the literature pertaining to it may therefore be mentioned here. Every temple of Asclepius had its attendant physicians, who practised surgery, faith cure, and such empirical treatment as they knew. One of the most famous temples of Asclepius. was at Cos, and here it was that Hippocrates, Hippocrates. the most famous physician of the fifth century B. C., was born. He was an Asclepiad-that is, he belonged to the family of hereditary priests or ministers of Asclepius. The date of his birth is unknown, but he seems to have flourished in the early years of the Peloponnesian War. He is said to have died at Larisa, in Thessaly, at an advanced age. A collection of sixty-two works of various 1 Odes, i, 28. length has been handed down under his name, but the works themselves are evidently of different dates, for the most part later than Hippocrates, though some may be earlier. Whether any of the extant works is the work of Hippocrates himself is uncertain. They are written in Ionic Greek, and show that the early physicians were careful observers and usually sensible practitioners, though their theories were often absurd. After Hippocrates, his son-inlaw, Polybius, his grandsons and great-grandsons, are said to have continued the Coan school of medicine. CHAPTER XIV THE LOGOGRAPHERS Cadmus of Miletus, about 550 B. C.-Acusilaus, second half of the sixth century B. C.-Seylax, toward 500 B. C.-Hecatæus, 540 (?) −470 (?) B. C.-Pherecydes of Leros, about 500 B. C.-Charon, about 500 B.C.— Xanthus, about 500-450 B. C.-Hellanicus, about 450 B. c.—Antiochus, about 450 B. C.-Other logographers-Stesimbrotus, about 425 B. C. THE earliest writers of history are usually called logographers, a word which primarily means writers of prose. The words history and historian are first applied to Herodotus and his work. The logographers had, as a rule, little or no appreciation of history as a whole, or of any great movements in history, but wrote annals of various cities, with special attention to the early myths and legends. Some of them also described places and countries. Little is known of most of them, and few fragments of their works are preserved. Cadmus of Miletus is the earliest known logographer, and so little is known of him that his very existence has been doubted. He appears to have lived about the middle of the sixth century B. C., and a work entitled The Founding of Miletus is ascribed to Cadmus of him. He is for us little more than a name. Somewhat more is known of Acusilaus. He was born at the little town of Argos in Boeotia, and lived in the second half of the sixth century. He was a sort Acusilaus. of prose Hesiod, and wrote a work entitled Genealogies, in several books. He began with the primeval Chaos, told of the origin of the gods, and passed on to the |