true place, and has assigned to them a position in zoological classification much nearer man than are any of the domestic animals. The Cheiroptera, or wing-handed mammals, meet the flying lemurs. These meet the apes, which stand next to man. The wings of the bat first attract the notice of observers. Derham in his "Survey of Quadrupeds" long ago spoke of "the wings of the bat as a prodigious deviation from nature's ordinary way." They are formed by an extension of the skin itself, and consist of an extremely thin and delicate membrane "extending in front from the neck and sides of the body to the extremity of the fingers of each upper limb, and behind to the tail and to the heels of the feet. All the parts of the bony skeleton are fruitful of remarkable illustrations of the adaptation between structure

and functions-see Plate IX., Fig. 9. The bats come abroad at night, and feed on the moths and beetles that are then on the wing. In all countries the larger forms have been regarded with dread and superstition. Lying hid during the day in rock crevices, in old walls, and in the holes of decayed trees, no sooner has darkness begun to gather over the landscape than they come forth weird-like for their nocturnal work. They were "the filthy birds of the sea" of the ancients; the harpies which came forth on bad intent; the monsters ready to suck the life-blood of the sleeping child. Knowledge has dissipated such imaginings; yet there are comparatively few who even yet have come to regard these animals with the interest which they deserve. Bats hybernate or sleep during winter. They seldom have more than one young one, and never more than two. These are suckled at two

teats on the breast. The reference to the bat by Isaiah points to the dark places in which they lie during the day.

From the bat Moses passes to insects. These are named "flying creeping things." Assuming that the Spirit of God made use of the attainments of his servant in communicating with his people, verses 21 and 22 show us how closely Moses had observed the creatures now referred to:-" Yet these may ye eat, of every flying creeping thing that goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the earth. Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind. But all other flying creeping things, which have four feet, shall be an abomination unto

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you. The generic distinctions between the insects noticed are clearly indicated. The different direction of the two front legs from the four hinder ones is pointed out in such a way as to show that he looked upon the former as arms. Again, there is a well defined distinction made between "going" and "leaping." Insects of this group have both motions. The former is slow, awkward, and crawling; the latter is rapid, elegant, and lively. Even Shaw, with his powers of careful observation, failed to appreciate this distinction in the spirit of the text. He says:-"It may be observed again, that insects do not properly walk upon four, but six feet. Neither is there any adequate description peculiar to this tribe conveyed to us, by their being said to have legs upon their feet, to leap withal upon the earth; because they have this in common only with birds, frogs, and

several other creatures. The original expression therefore may probably bear this construction; viz., which have knees upon, or above their hinder legs, to leap withal upon the earth. For to apply this description to the locust (the only one we know of the four that are mentioned, Lev. xi. 22), this insect has the two hindermost of its legs or feet much stronger, larger, and longer than any one of the foremost. In them the knee, or the articulation of the leg and thigh, is distinguished by a remarkable bending or curvature; whereby it is able, whenever prepared to jump, to spring and raise itself up with great force and activity. As the principal distinction therefore betwixt the clean and unclean insects, seems to have depended upon this particular shape and structure of the hinder feet, the action which is ascribed to the clean insects, of going upon four (viz., the foremost feet), and leaping upon the (two) hindermost, is a characteristic as expressive of the original text, as it is of the animals to whom it appertains." -(Travels ii., 288.)

This is only part of the truth. If the verses now under notice be looked at in the light of even the most recent scientific definition of this group of insects, the reader will be struck with their precision. "The fourth section, SALTATORIA," says Mr. Westwood, "corresponds with the Linnæan genus Gryllus, and consists of all those species which have the four anterior legs simple and short, and the two hind legs long and formed for leaping. For this purpose the femora are greatly thickened, so as internally to afford support to the strong muscles by which the leap is effected; the posterior edge of the thigh is channelled, so as to receive the tibia when at rest; the upper or posterior surface of the latter being generally strongly spined, and furnished at the tip with robust spurs, which assist greatly in effecting the leap of the insect, by offering resistance against the substance on which the insect is stationed. The body is generally compressed; the tarsi vary in the number of their joints, as well as the antennæ, which are also greatly variable in length, being in some species several times longer than the body. The males are enabled to make a peculiar chirruping noise, which is produced in different manners in the different groups, being in some (Locusta) caused by the friction of the strong veins inclosing a talc-like spot, or crepitaculum, at the base of the wing-covers."

Another list of unclean animals is introduced here, which is omitted in Deut. xiv:-" These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, and the ferret, and the chame

leon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. These are unclean to you among all that creep; whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even. And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, doth fall, it shall be unclean; whether it be any vessel of wood, or raiment, or skin, or sack, whatsoever vessel it be wherein any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the even; so it shall be cleansed" (ver. 29–32).

The difficulties in the way of identifying the animals now named are many and great. But these have been increased by overlooking the manifest reference to habits, when we join the expression "creeping things that creep" with some of the animals known to be indicated here. The opinions of leading interpreters vary more widely than the rendering of the different versions of Scripture.

ENGLISH VERSION.

Chameleon. Lizard.

Snail.

Mole.

WEASEL. The unwillingness of interpreters to admit the weasel, the mouse, and the mole into this list originates in the theory, that the creeping things" must mean reptiles proper (Reptilia). But if the sly and stealthy way in which the weasel and the mouse move about in the grass or in other haunts, and the motion of the mole when it appears above ground, be taken into account, we cease to wonder at their presence here with the lizards and the snail. "Weasel" may be regarded as the name for the family (Mustelidae). Besides the common weasel (Mustela vulgaris) which is widely distributed, the polecat (M. putorius) is abundant in the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. THE MOUSE. See under 1 Sam. vi. 4; Isa. lxvi. 17.

THE TORTOISE after his kind. Our translators refused to follow the leading versions here and render tzav, rightly I think, "tortoise," guided by the reference in the word to something covered, rounded, and fat-looking. Illustrations of the "tortoise after his kind" are given on Plate XII.—which see. The name "tortoise" is generally

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applied to the land and the fresh-water forms; "turtle" to those of the sea. Six genera of chelonian reptiles (Chelonia) are represented on the plate. They belong to the group Cataphracta, or reptiles with

shields. The common tortoise (Testudo græca, Fig. 1), and the Nilotic three-toed tortoise (Trionyx niloticus, Fig. 7) were those with which the Israelites would be acquainted. The others are introduced to show the leading forms. But if these commands took into account the scattering of the people into other lands, even before the Old Testament dispensation closed, they might meet with other forms.

Fig. 43.

Sternum of Chelonia.

The skeleton of the tortoises (Plate IX., Fig. 11) is external, and acts as a shield to the muscular system. It consists mainly of two parts, namely, the carapace, or upper part of the shield, and the plastron, or under part. The former is generally rounded; the latter is flat. The plastron answers to the breastbone, or sternum, of birds, and the carapace to the chest, or thorax, in man and the higher animals. It is, indeed, nothing more than the ribs conjoined by a resembling solid cement. Eight pairs can be easily distinguished. The

head is in most small. The anterior feet have generally five claws,