II. All the sacrifices were occasional, and had reference to individuals: but there were others which were national and regular, DAILY, WEEKLY, MONTHLY, and ANNUAL.

sins of the person who brought it. In Isa. liii. 10. Jesus | xxx. 34-36. It was offered twice every day, morning and Christ is said to make his soul an offering for sin, ex evening, by the officiating priest, upon an altar of gold, where (ASHEM), the very word used in the law of Moses to denote a no bloody sacrifice was to come, during which solemn rite trespass-offering. the people prayed without in silence. (Luke 1. 10.) But on the great day of expiation the high-priest himself took fire from the great altar in a golden censer; and, on descending thence, he received incense from one of the priests, which he 1. The Perpetual or Daily Sacrifice was a burnt-offering, offered on the golden altar. During such offering the people consisting of two lambs, which were offered every day, prayed silently without; and to this most solemn silence morning and evening, at the third and ninth hours. (Exod. St. John alludes in Rev. viii. 1., where he says that there xxix. 38-40. Lev. vi. 9-18, Num. xxviii. 1-8.) They was silence in heaven about the space of half an hour. To this were burnt as holocausts, but by a small fire, that they might oblation of incense the Psalmist refers (cxli. 2.) in his devocontinue burning the longer. With each of these victims tions, and explains his meaning by his application of it: Let was offered a bread-offering and a drink-offering of strong my prayer be set forth in thy sight as the incense." As the wine. The morning sacrifice, according to the Jews, made smoke and odour of this offering was wafted into the holy atonement for the sins committed in the night, and the even-place, close by the veil of which stood the altar of incense, ing sacrifice expiated those committed during the day. This sacrifice was a daily expression of national as well as individual repentance, prayer, and thanksgiving.

2. The Weekly Sacrifice on every Sabbath-day was equal to the daily sacrifice, and was offered in addition to it. (Num. xxviii. 9, 10.)

3. The Monthly Sacrifice, on every new moon, or at the beginning of each month, consisted of two young bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year old, together with a kid for a sin-offering, and a suitable bread and drink offering. (Num. xxviii. 11—14.)

4. The Yearly Sacrifices were those offered on the great annual festivals, viz. (1.) The paschal lamb at the passover, which was celebrated at the commencement of the Jewish sacred year; (2.) On the day of pentecost, or day of firstfruits; (3.) On the new moon, or first day of the seventh month, which was the beginning of their civil year, or in-gathering of the fruits and vintage; and all these stated burnt-offerings were to be accompanied with a sin-offering of a goat, to show their insufficiency to "make the comers thereunto perfect" (Num. xxviii. Heb. x. 1.); (4.) Lastly, on the day of expiation, or great day of atonement. As a particular account is given of the solemn festivals in the following section, we proceed briefly to notice the second general class of sacrifice, viz.

so do the prayers of the faithful ascend upwards and find admission to the highest heaven." (Acts x. 4.)

2. The VOLUNTARY or FREE OBLATIONS were either the fruits of promises or of vows; but the former were not considered so strictly obligatory as the latter, of which there were two kinds.

(1.) The vow of consecration, when any thing was devoted either for sacrifice or for the service of the temple, as wine, wood, salt, &c.; and

(2.) The vow of engagement, when persons engaged to do something that was not in itself unlawful, as not to eat of some particular meat, nor to wear some particular habits, not to drink wine, nor to cut their hair, &c. When the Jews made a vow, they made use of one of these two forms: "I charge myself with a burnt-offering;" or, "I charge myself with the price of this animal for a burnt-offering." Besides these they had other shorter forms; for instance, when they devoted all they had, they merely said, "All I have shalt be corban," that is, "I make an oblation of it to God." Among other false doctrines taught by the Pharisees, who were the depositaries of the sacred treasury, was this, that as soon as a person had pronounced to his father or mother this form of consecration or offering, Be it corban (that is, devoted), whatever of mine shall profit thee (Mark vii. 11.), he thereby consecrated all he had to God, and must not thenceforth do any thing for his indigent parents if they solicited support from him. With great reason, therefore, does Jesus Christ reproach them with having destroyed, by their tradition, not only the commandment of the law which enjoins children to honour their fathers and mothers, but also another divine precept, which, under the severest penalty, forbad that kind of dishonour which consists in contumelious words. (Mark vii. 9, 10. 13.) They, however, proceeded even further than this unnatural gloss; for, though the son did not directly give, or mean to give, any thing to God at IV. DRINK-OFFERINGS were an accompaniment to both that time, yet if he afterwards should repent of his rashness, bloody and unbloody sacrifices: they were never used sepa- and wish to supply them with any thing, what he had forrately, and consisted of wine, which appears to have been merly said precluded the possibility of doing so; for his propartly poured upon the brow of the victim in order to conse-perty became eventually devoted to God, and, according to crate it, and partly allotted to the priests, who drank it with the Pharisaic doctrine, the sacred treasury had a claim upon their portions of both these kinds of offerings. The Psalmist it, in preference to the parents. The words "be it corban," shows how the use of drink-offerings degenerated amongst or devoted, consequently implied an imprecation against himidolaters, who in their superstitious rage made use of the blood self, if he should ever afterwards bestow any thing for the of living creatures, perhaps of men, in their libations. Their relief of his parents: as if he should say to them, “May I DRINK-OFFERINGS OF BLOOD, says he, will I not offer. (Psal. incur all the infamy of sacrilege and perjury if ever ye get xvi. 4.) any thing from me," than which it is not easy to conceive of any thing spoken by a son to his parents more contemptuous or more barbarous, and therefore justly denominated xxx," opprobrious language."

III. The UNBLOODY SACRIFICES OF MEAT-OFFERINGS (Lev. ii.), which were taken solely from the vegetable kingdom. They consisted of meal, bread, cakes, ears of corn, and parched grain, with oil and frankincense prepared according to the divine command. Regularly they could not be presented as sin-offerings, except in the single case of the person who had sinned being so poor, that the offering of two young pigeons or two turtle doves exceeded his means. They were to be free from leaven or honey: but to all of them it was necessary to add pure salt, that is, saltpetre.

V Besides the various kinds of sacrifices above described, there were some oblations made by the Jews, consisting of incense, bread, and other things: which have been divided by Lamy into three sorts, viz. such as were ordinary or common; voluntary or free oblations; and such as were prescribed. 1. The ORDINARY OBLATIONS were,

(1.) The Shew-bread (Heb. bread of the face), which consisted of twelve loaves, according to the number of the tribes of Israel. They were placed hot, every Sabbath-day, by the priests, upon the golden table in the sanctuary, before the Lord; when they removed the stale loaves which had been exposed for the whole of the preceding week. The priests alone were to eat the bread thus removed. David, however, through necessity broke through this restriction (1 Sam. xxi. 3, 4.), God preferring mercy to sacrifice, or, in the collision of duties, allowing a positive to give way to a natural law. (Matt. xii. 7.)

(2.) Incense, consisting of several fragrant spices, prepared according to the instructions given to Moses in Exod.

Dr. A. Clarke on Exod xxix. 10.

66

994

3. The PRESCRIBED OBLATIONS were either first-fruits or tithes.

(1.) All the First-fruits, both of fruit and animals, were consecrated to God (Exod. xxii. 29. Num. xviii. 12, 13.

2 Sir Isaac Newton on the Apocalypse, p. 261. See also Woodhouse on Rev. viii. 1. p. 199. "The

3 Jones on the Fig. Lang. of Script. Lect. iv. towards the close.

prayer of faith," adds this learned and pious writer, "is acceptable to God, as the fragrance of incense is agreeable to the senses of man; and, spirit of this service is to be kept up at those times throughout all generaas the incense was offered twice a day, in the morning and evening, the tions. The prophet Malachi (upon a forced and erroneous interpretation of whose words alone the church of Rome has founded and defended the use of incense in her worship) foretold that it should be observed throughout the world (Mal. i. 11.), and in the Revelation we hear of this incense as now actually carried up and presented in heaven. (Rev. v. 8.) Happy are they who fulfil this service; and at the rising and going down of the sun send up this offering to heaven, as all Christians are supposed to do, at least twice in every day." Ibid. (Works, vol. iii. p. 66.)

Dr. Campbell's Translation of the Four Gospels, vol. ii. PP. 379-382. third edition. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 300.

!

120

SACRED THINGS.

Deut. xxvi. 2. Neh. x. 35, 36.);1 and the first-fruits of corn, wine, oil, and sheep's wool were offered for the use of the Levites. (Deut. xviii. 4.) The amount of this gift is not specified in the law of Moses, which leaves it entirely to the pleasure of the giver: the Talmudical writers, however, inform us, that liberal persons were accustomed to give the fortieth, and even the thirtieth; while such as were covetous or penurious gave only a sixtieth part. The first of these they called an oblation with a good eye, and the second an oblation with an evil eye. To this traditional saying our Lord is, by some learned men, supposed to have alluded in Matt. xx. 15. Among animals, the males only belong to God; and the Jews not only had a right, but were even obliged, to redeem them in the case of men and unclean animals, which could not be offered in sacrifice. These first-fruits were offered from the feast of pentecost until that of dedication, because after that time the fruits were neither so beautiful nor so good as before. Further, the Jews were prohibited from gathering in the harvest until they had offered to God the omer, that is, the new sheaf, which was presented the day after the great day of unleavened bread: neither were they allowed to bake any bread made of new corn until they had offered the new loaves upon the altar on the day of pentecost; without which all the corn was regarded as unclean and unholy. To this St. Paul alludes in Rom. xi. 16.; where he says, If the FIRST-FRUIT be holy, the lump also is holy. The presentation of the first-fruits was a solemn and festive ceremony. At the beginning of harvest, the sanhedrin deputed a number of priests to go into the fields and reap a handful of the first ripe corn; and these, attended by great crowds of people, went out of one of the gates of Jerusalem into the neighbouring corn-fields. reaped were carried with great pomp and universal rejoicing The first-fruits thus through the streets of Jerusalem to the temple. The Jewish writers say that an ox preceded them with gilded horns and an olive crown upon his head, and that a pipe played before them until they approached the city: on entering it they crowned the first-fruits, that is, exposed them to sight with as much pomp as they could, and the chief officers of the temple went out to meet them. They were then devoutly offered to God in grateful acknowledgment of his providential goodness in giving them the fruits of the earth. "These first-fruits, or handful of the first ripe grain, gave notice to all who beheld them that the general harvest would soon be gathered in. How beautiful and striking is St. Paul's allusion to this religious ceremony in that most consolatory and closely reasoned chapter, the fifteenth of his first Epistle to the Corinthians, in which, from the resurrection of Jesus Christ, he argues and establishes the certainty of the general resurrection; and represents Christ as the first-fruits of a glorious and universal harvest of all the sleeping dead! Now is Christ risen, and become the FIRST-FRUITS of them that slept." (1 Cor. xv. 20.) The use which the apostle makes of this image is very extensive. of grain from the earth where it was buried is an exact image "In the first place, the growing of the resurrection of the body; for, as the one is sown, so is the other, and neither is quickened except it first die and be buried. Then the whole harvest, from its relation to the firstfruits, explains and ensures the order of our resurrection. For, is the sheaf of the first-fruits reaped? then is the whole harvest ready. Is Christ risen from the dead? then shall all rise in like manner. ing? then shall every sheaf that has grown up with him be Is he accepted of God as a holy offertaken from the earth and sanctified in its proper order :Christ, the FIRST-FRUITS, and afterwards they that are Christ's at his coming.2 (1 Cor. xv. 23.)

(2.) Besides the first-fruits, the Jews also paid the Tenths or Tithes of all they possessed. (Num. xviii. 21.) They were in general collected of all the produce of the earth (Lev. xxvii. 30. Deut. xiv. 22, 23. Neh. xiii. 5. 10.), but chiefly of corn, wine, and oil, and were rendered every year except the sabbatical year. the owner of the fruits further gave another tenth part, which When these tithes were paid, was carried up to Jerusalem, and eaten in the temple at offering feasts, as a sign of rejoicing and gratitude to God. These

1 From the Jewish custom of offering first-fruits to Jehovah, the hea thens borrowed a similar rite. See Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. xviii. c. 2. Horace, 2 Jones's Works, vol. iii. p. 64. Harwood's Introd. to the New Test, vol. ii. p. 307. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 146-119. Beausobre's Introd. to the New Test. (vol. iii. p. 200. of Bishop Watson's Collection of Tracts.) Dr. Lightfoot's Works, vol. i. p. 964. vol. ii. pp. 184. 306, 307. folio edit. Lamy's Apparatus, vol. i. p. 204. rp. 210–221. Schulzii Archæol. Hebr. pp. 287-292. Lamy's Apparatus Ikenii Antiq. Hebr. part i. c. 15. Biblicus, vol. i. pp. 203-206.

Sat. lib. ii. Sat. v. 12. Tibullus, Eleg. lib. i. El. i. 13.

[PART III.

are called second tithes. The Levites paid a tenth of the tithes they received to the priests. Lastly, there were tithes allotted to the poor, for whom there was also a corner left in every field, which it was not lawful to reap with the rest (Lev. xix. 9. Deut. xxiv. 19.); and they were likewise allowed such ears of corn, or grapes, as were dropped or scattered about, and the sheaves that might be accidentally forgotten in the field. Field-tithes might be redeemed by those who desired it, on paying one-fifth in addition: but all conversion of the tithes of cattle was prohibited. (Lev. xxvii. 32, 33.) The payment and appreciation of them Moses left to the consciences of the people, without subjecting them to judicial or sacerdotal visitations, but at the same time he did not prohibit the Levites from taking care that they duly received what was their own. of the people, with respect to the second tithe, he secured merely by the declaration which they made every three years The conscientious accuracy before God. From trifling articles he in no case required tithes; though we learn from the Gospel that the Pharisees affected to be scrupulously exact in paying tithes of every the least herb. (Matt. xxiii. 23.) If, however, a person committed a trespass against the sanctuary, that is, had not paid the tithes of any particular things, and if, at any time had afterwards, his conscience were awakened to a sense of his guilt, he had it in his power to make an atonement, without incurring any civil disgrace, by simply paying an additional fifth, with his tithe, and making a trespass-offering. (Lev. v. 14-16.)

before the time of Moses. Thus Abraham gave to Melchi-
The custom of giving tithes to the Deity existed long
sedek king of Salem (who was at the same time the priest
from the enemy, when he returned from his expedition
of the Most High God) the tithe of all that he had taken
against the four kings who were in alliance with Chedorlao-
mer. (Gen. xiv. 20.) And Jacob consecrated to God the
tenth of all that he should acquire in Mesopotamia. (Gen.
xxviii. 22.) The same custom obtained among various
ancient nations, who devoted to their gods the tenth part of
every thing they obtained.

we may strongly infer their FITNESS AND UTILITY.
VI. From the preceding sketch of the Jewish Sacrifices,

sacrifices are a very absurd and savage mode of expressing
According to the refined ideas of modern times animal
and promoting devout sentiments and dispositions. But, if
we steadily keep in view the genius and habits of ancient
nations, and the special circumstances of the Hebrews, these
objections will vanish; and the propriety as well as expe-
diency of the Jewish institutions will forcibly appear.

"When the practice of sacrificing was first appointed, the mode of instruction by visible emblems or symbols was both use of letters was probably unknown: consequently, the indispensable and highly beneficial. In such a state of things, the offering of animal victims was made to answer now happily fitted to express. When we consider sacrifices, for that more simple and rational devotion, which words are with all their attendant rites, as appointed by God in order to assist the religious instruction, improvement, and consola tion of man, we must conclude that the Most High would, in the first instance, clearly explain every part of this institution; otherwise it could not answer its proposed ends. Now, if the moral import of sacrifices were thus explained, is beyond calculation. In untutored man, reason is weak, the utility of them to mankind in their rude and simple state nation, and passion are the leading avenues both to the unthe mental feelings are heavy and rough, while sense, imagiment of sacrifices is peculiarly adapted for these convey derstanding and heart. To man thus situated, the appointa most pathetic and awful address to his very senses, and thus rouse him to the most serious and impressive reflections. The frequent spectacles of bleeding and smoking victims, suffering and atoning for the guilty offerers, would give them of God, of the evil of transgressions, of their own ill desert, the deepest impressions of the purity, justice, and majesty and of the necessity of some adequate atonement, and of the readiness of the Deity to pardon the penitent. The nume‐ striking pomp which preceded and attended them, were fitted not only to excite and express the most reverential, humble, rous and diversified offerings of the ancient Jews, with the and grateful devotion; but also to give the best direction to the whole temper and conduct. The many washings and

:

ries, vol. iii. pp. 142, 143.
On the application of these second tithes, see Michaelis's Commenta-
• Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 141-143.

purifications, enjoined previous to the oblation of sacrifice, ing, a perfect sacrifice for the sins of the world. In a word, were not only physically beneficial in the eastern countries, the religion of the Jews and that of Christians form one but directly tended to impress a simple people with a scru- great and harmonious plan. The Jews saw gospel-truth in pulous regard to inward and moral purity, especially in all its early and gradual dawn; we behold in it its meridian their approaches to the Deity. That this was the primary splendour. When Christ appeared, the candid and pious intention of these ceremonies, was a maxim frequently and Jews embraced him; because they saw in him a glorious solemnly enforced. In those early ages, the language of counterpart, a perfect accomplishment of their ancient rites these well-chosen emblems could not fail to be well under- and predictions. The Gentiles, on the other hand, were led stood and strongly felt. Above all, the frequent sacrifices of to venerate and believe in the Hebrew Law; because they the Jewish law were intended to prefigure, and gradually to beheld in it an exact, though imperfect figure and prophecy prepare men for the great atoning sacrifice of the promised of the Gospel. What beauty and glory do these observaMessiah." Accordingly, “our Saviour, in allusion to those tions reflect both on the Jewish and Christian dispensations! ancient oblations, is called by way of eminence a sin-offer- What admirable depth of wisdom do they discover in both!"

CHAPTER IV.

SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS OBSERVED BY THE JEWS.

I. THE SABBATH.-1. How observed.-2. Jewish Worship on that Day; particularly their Manner of worshipping in the Temple.-II. NEW MOONS.-III. Annual Festivals.-Their important Design.-IV. THE PASSOVER; when celebrated, and with what Ceremonies; its mystical or typical Reference.-V. THE DAY OF PENTECOST.-VI. THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES. -VII. Other annual Festivals.-1. THE FEAST OF TRUMPETS.-2. THE DAY OF EXPIATION.-VIII. Annual Festivals instituted by the Jews in later Times.-1. THE FEAST OF PURIM. 2. THE FEAST OF DEDICATION.-IX. Other Festivals observed at stated Intervals.-1. THE SABBATICAL YEAR.-2. THE YEAR OF JUBILEE.

for the Sabbath-day, in order to do it honour; and that they actually had Sabbath-feasts, to which they even invited persons with whom they were unacquainted.i

The Sabbath commenced at sunset, and closed at the same time on the following day. (Matt. viii. 16. Mark i. 32.) Whatever was necessary was prepared on the latter part of the preceding day, that is, of our Friday: hence, the day preceding the Sabbath (par) is in the New Testament termed the preparation (Tapan), in Matt. xxvii. 62. Mark

xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xix. 14. 31. 42.2

2. We know not with certainty from the Mosaic writings what constituted the most ancient worship of the Israelites on the Sabbath-day. It is however, evident from the New Testament, that the celebration of this day chiefly consisted in the religious exercises which were then performed: though there is no injunction recorded, except that a burnt-offering of two lambs should on that day be added to the morning and evening sacrifices (Num. xxviii. 9.); and that the shewbread should be changed. (Lev. xxiv. 8.) In the synagogues the Sacred Writings were read and expounded, to which was sometimes added a discourse or sermon by some doctor or eminent teacher. (Luke iv. 16. Acts xiii. 15.) Prayer also appears to have formed a part of their sacred worship in the synagogue, and especially in the temple. (1 Sam. i. 9, 10. 1 Kings viii. 29, 30. 33. Psal. xxvii. 2. Luke xviii. 10. Acts ii. 15. and iii. 1.)

vations.

he might on no account sit down either in the Israelites' or priests' court: no person whatever being allowed that privilege, except the kings of the house of David.-(6.) Having offered their prayers, and performed the services, they were to depart in the same order in which they had entered: and as they were prohibited to turn their backs upon the altar, they went backward till they were out of the court, and departed from the temple by a different gate from that by which they had entered.

II. The Jewish months being lunar were originally calcu lated from the first appearance of the moon, on which the FEAST OF THE NEW MOON, or the beginning of the month (as the Hebrews termed it), was celebrated. (Exod. xii. 2. Num. x. 10. xxviii. 11. Isa. i. 13, 14.) It seems to have been in use long before the time of Moses, who by the divine command prescribed what ceremonies were then to be observed. It was proclaimed by the sound of trumpets (Num. x. 10. Psal. lxxxi. 3.); and several additional sacrifices were offered. (Num. xxviii. 11—15.)

III. Besides the Sabbath, Moses instituted three ANNUAL Festivals, viz. the passover, the feast of pentecost, and the feast of tabernacles: these, which are usually denominated the Great Festivals, were distinguished from the Sabbath, and indeed from all other holy days, by the circumstance of two of them lasting seven, and one for eight, successive days; during which the Jews were bound to rejoice before the Lord With what reverence the Jews regarded their temple, we for all their deliverances and mercies. (Deut. xvi. 11—15.) have already seen 4 and in proportion to the sanctity of the All the males of the twelve tribes were bound to be present place was the solemn and holy behaviour required of all at these grand festivals (Exod. xxxiv. 23. Deut. xví. 16.); who came to worship there. The law, indeed, had prohi- and for their encouragement to attend they were assured that bited the approach of all uncleanness; but to the enactments no man should desire their land during their absence (Exod. of Moses the great masters of traditions added a variety of xxxiv. 24.): in other words, that they should be secure from other trifling regulations, which the law had not named, hostile invasion during their attendance on religious worship: while they scruple not to make the "house of prayer" a dena manifest proof this of the divine origin of their religion, of thieves. Dr. Lightfoot has collected many of these tra- as well as of the power and particular providence of God ditions respecting the temple worship; an abridgment of in working thrice every year an especial miracle for the prowhich will form a proper supplement to the preceding obser- tection of his people; for it is a well known fact, that the Jews constantly attended these ceremonies without any fear of danger, and that their most vigilant enemies never invaded or injured them during these sacred seasons. The design of these meetings was partly to unite the Jews among themselves, and, teaching them to regard each other as brethren and fellow-citizens, to promote mutual love and friendship. To this the Psalmist probably refers in Psal. cxxii. 3, 4.; and it was partly that, as one church, they might make one congregation, join in solemn worship together, and renew their oath of allegiance to the one true God, and to their excellent constitution and religion. Further, so large a concourse of people would give the greater solemnity to these festivals: and as no Israelite was to present himself before the Lord without some offering (Deut. xvi. 16, 17.), ample provision was thus made for the support of the ministers of the sanctuary. On these occasions, although the men were required to attend, it does not appear that women were prevented from going if they chose, at least to the passover. (See 1 Sam. 1. 3. 7. Luke ii. 41.) For greater security, however, against the attacks of robbers on the road, they used to travel in large companies, those who came from the same city, canton, or district, forming one company. They carried necessaries along with them, and tents for their lodg ing at night. It was among such a "company" that Joseph and Mary sought Jesus Christ (Luke ii. 44.): and to their journeying through a dreary valley on one of these festivals the Psalmist probably alludes. (lxxxiv. 6.) Further, as the Jewish sanctuary and service contained in them a shadow of good things to come, and were typical of the Christian church, this prescribed concourse from all parts of the country might be intended to typify the gathering of the people to Christ and into his church, from all parts of the world under the Christian dispensation. Hence St. Paul, alluding to these general assemblies of the Israelites on the three Lightfoot's Works, vol. ii. pp. 947-950.

(1.) No man might enter the "mountain of the house," for so they called the temple, with his staff; weapons of offence being unsuited to the house of peace; and it being reputed indecorous to lean, when there, on any other staff than God. On this account it was, that our Lord expelled the buyers and sellers of cattle from the temple, with a whip of cords. (John ii. 15.)-(2.) No man was permitted to enter with shoes on his feet, nor dust on his feet, which he was obliged to wipe or wash (thus intimating the necessity of approaching the Most High divested of all worldly cares and affections); nor with money in his purse, nor with his purse about him. -(3.) Having arrived at the temple, every worshipper was prohibited from spitting there, as well as from using any irreverent gestures, or making it a thoroughfare to shorten his distance in crossing from one part of the city to another; and on entering the court, he must walk leisurely and gravely to his place, and there demean himself as in the presence of God. (4.) Having now entered to pray and attend the service, he was to stand with his feet one even with the other; and, casting his eyes downward, while he raised his heart upward, must cross his hands upon his breast, and stand as a servant before his master with all reverence and fear. The practice of looking down in prayer the Jews derived from those passages of Scripture, which speak of being ashamed to look up towards heaven, on account of their sinfulness: to this position of looking down and laying his hands upon his heart, the demeanour of the devout publican (Luke xviii. 13.) seems to be parallel. Even the priests, when they pronounced the blessing upon the people, neither looked up towards heaven, nor level upon the people, but down upon the ground; and the people were prohibited from looking upon them. (5.) However weary the worshipper might be with standing,

1 Luke xiv. 1. and Lightfoot's Hora Hebraicæ on that passage. (Works, vol. ii. pp. 445, 446.) See also Wetstein's Notes, vol. i. p. 750. Michaelis remarks that our Saviour's observation in Luke xiv. 12-14. can only be fully understood in reference to a feast that formed a part of divine worship, and, as such, might look for a recompense from God: for we do not in ordinary cases expect that God should reward us in another world for every entertainment we give. Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 158. 2 Schulzii Archæologia Hebraica, pp. 311-314; Leusden's Philologus Hebræo-Mixtus, pp. 240-262.; Beausobre's and L'Enfant's Introduction (Bp. Watson's Theol. Tracts, vol. iii. pp. 225-234.); the Mosaic statutes relative to the Sabbath are fully discussed by Michaelis, Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 150-181.; vol. ii. pp. 399, 400.

See pp. 101-106. supra.

See pp. 100, 101.

This prohibition was derived from the command of God to Moses (Exod. iii. 5.), and Joshua. (v. 15.) The same usage obtains throughout the East to this day.

Nearly similar to this is the mode of travelling in the East to this hour. Such companies they now call caravans; and in many places there are buildings fitted up for their reception, called caravanserais. This account of the Israelites' mode of travelling furnishes a ready answer to the question, how Joseph and Mary could make a day's journey without discovering before night, that Jesus was not in the "company" In the daytime, as circumstances might lead them, the travellers would probably mingle with their friends and acquaintance; but in the evening, when they were about to encamp, every one would join the family to which he belonged. As Jesus then did not appear when it was growing late, his parents first sought him, where they supposed he would most probably be, among his relations and acquaintance; and not finding him, returned to Jerusalem. Dr. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, vol. ii. p. 449. note on Luke

ii. 44.

grand feasts, says, "We are come to the general assembly and church of the first-born." (Heb. xii. 23.)

But besides the benefits to be derived from the religious celebration of these ordinances, Michaelis, to whom we are indebted for part of the preceding remarks, has pointed out several instances in which they produced a salutary effect on the community. Not only would their meeting together in one place for the purposes of religion and social intercourse tend to prevent a total alienation of rival tribes, as well as civil war, but it would also afford them an opportunity of being mutually reconciled. Further, it is not improbable that these annual meetings promoted the internal commerce of the Israelites, who were prohibited from carrying on traffic with foreigners; and, lastly, they had an important influence on the Jewish calendar, inasmuch as the year was arranged, so that the various festivals should fall in their respective months without interfering with the labours of the field.

the Jewish festivals, is copiously related in the twelfth chapter of Exodus, it is unnecessary to detail it again in this place: but as various traditional observances were in after-times added to the Mosaic precepts concerning this sacrifice, to which there are manifest allusions in the New Testament, we shall trace them, as briefly as the important nature of the subject will admit, under the following heads:-1. The time when it was to be kept;-2. The ceremonies with which it was to be celebrated;-3. The mystical signification of these rites.

the passover began in the evening. The fifteenth day, however, might also be called the first day of unleavened bread :9 since, according to the Hebrew computation of time, the evening of the fourteenth was the dawn or beginning of the fifteenth, on which day the Jews began to eat unleavened bread. (Exod. xii. 18.) But, if any persons were prevented from arriving at Jerusalem in time for the feast, either by any length of the journey, he was allowed to defer his celebration of the passover until the fourteenth day of the following month, in the evening. (Num. ix. 10-12.) As it is not improbable that some difference or mistake might arise in determining the new moon, so often as such difference recurred, there would consequently be some discrepancy as to the precise time of commencing the passover. Such a discordance might easily arise between the rival and hostile sects of Pharisees and Sadducees; and such a difference, it has been conjectured, did exist at the time Jesus Christ celebrated the passover with his disciples, one whole day before the Pharisees offered their paschal sacrifice. Sacrifices peculiar to this festival were to be offered every day during its continuance; but the first and last days were to be sanctified above all the rest, by abstaining from servile labour, and holding a sacred convocation. (Exod. xii. 16. Lev. xxiii. 7, 8.)

1. Of the time when the Passover was to be kept.-This festival commenced on the evening subsequent to the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, the first in the Jewish sacred or ecclesiastical year (Exod. xii. 6. 8. 18. Lev. xxiii. 4-8. Num. xxviii. 16-27.), with eating what was called the paschal lamb; and it was to continue seven whole days, that is, until the twenty-first. The day preceding its commencement was IV. The first and most eminent of these festivals was the called the preparation of the passover. (John xix. 14.) DurPASSOVER,2 instituted the night before the Israelites' departure ing its continuance no leavened bread was allowed to be from Egypt, for a perpetual memorial of their signal deliver-used; hence the fourteenth day of the month Nisan might ance, and of the favour which God showed them in passing with great propriety be called (as we find it is in Matt. xxvi. over and sparing their first-born, when he slew the first-born 17. Mark xiv. 12.) the first day of unleavened bread, because of the Egyptians. (Exod. xii. 12—14. 29–51.) This festival was also called the feast or the days of unleavened bread (Exod. xxiii. 15. Mark xiv. 1. Acts xii. 3.); because it was unlawful to eat any other bread during the seven days the feast lasted. The name was also by a metonymy given to the lamb that was killed on the first day of this feast (Ezra vi. 20. Matt. xxvi. 17.), whence the expressions to eat the passover (Mark xiv. 12. 14.)3 and to sacrifice the passover.uncleanness contracted by touching a dead body, or by the (1 Cor. v. 7.) Hence also St. Paul calls Jesus Christ our passover (ibid.), that is, our true paschal lamb. But the appellation, passover, belongs more particularly to the second day of the feast, viz. the fifteenth day of the month Nisan.5 It was ordained to be celebrated on the anniversary of the deliverance of the Israelites. This was an indispensable rite to be observed by every Israelite, except in particular cases enumerated in Num. ix. 1-13., on pain of death; and no uncircumcised person was allowed to partake of the passover. On this festive occasion, it was the custom at Jerusalem for the inhabitants to give the free use of their rooms and furniture to strangers at the passover.-This usage will explain the circumstance of our Saviour's sending to a man to prepare for his eating the passover, who, by the relation, appears to have been a stranger to him. Further, in order to render this grand festival the more interesting, a custom was introduced in the later times of the Jewish polity 2. Of the ceremonies with which the Passover was to be cele of liberating some criminal. By whom or at what time brated. The paschal lamb was to be a male, without blemish, this practice originated it is now impossible accurately to of the first year, either from the sheep or the goats" (Exod. determine the most probable opinion is, that it was intro- xii. 5.): it was to be taken from the flocks four days before duced by the Romans themselves, perhaps by Pilate at the it was killed; and one lamb was to be offered for each family; commencement of his procuratorship of Judæa, with the per- and if its members were too few to eat a whole lamb, two mission of Augustus, in order to gratify the Jews by show-families were to join together. In the time of Josephus a ing them this public mark of respect. However this may paschal society consisted at least of ten persons to one lamb, be, it had become an established custom from which Pilate and not more than twenty.12 Our Saviour's society was com could not deviate (Matt. xxvii. 15. Luke xviii. 17. John xviii. posed of himself and the twelve disciples. (Matt. xxvi. 20. 39.), and therefore he reluctantly liberated the malefactor Luke xxii. 14.) Next followed the killing of the passover: Barabbas. before the exode of the Israelites from Egypt, this was done in their private dwellings; but after their settlement in Canaan, it was ordered to be performed "in the place which the Lord should choose to place his name there." (Deut. xvi. 2.) This appears to have been at first wherever the ark was deposited, and ultimately at Jerusalem in the courts of the temple.13 Every particular person (or rather a delegate from every paschal society) slew his own victim: according to Josephus, between the ninth hour, or three in the afternoon, and the eleventh, that is, about sunset; and within that space

As the very interesting history of this most solemn of all 1 Cominentaries on the Law of Moses, vol. iii. pp. 182-189. Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. ch. 4. pp. 448, 449. Tappan's Lectures on Jewish Antiquities, pp. 127, 128.

On the true meaning of the word passover Archbp. Magee has a -321. That it was a kind of fœderal rite (as the Eucharist also is) between

learned disquisition in vol. i. of his Discourses on the Atonement. pp. 309 God and men, Dr. Cudworth has solidly proved in his "True Notion of the Lord's Supper," chap. vi. pp. 28-36. at the end of vol. ii. of his "Intellect ual Systein," 4to. edit.

3 Schulzit Archæologia Hebr. p. 318.

• That the passover was proper and real sacrifice, see largely proved by Archbp. Magee, on the Atonement, vol. i. pp. 297-309.

Lev. xxiii. 6. Mark xiv. 1. Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10. § 5. of at least the thing signified by the sacrament of the Lord's supper, In like manner. Dr. Waterland has observed, a contempt and rejection must necessarily exclude every man from the benefits of Christ's passion

and death.

So, in the early ages of Christianity, no person was permitted to come to the Lord's supper until he had been baptized. As soon, however, as the passover was celebrated, every one was at liberty to go home the very next morning if he pleased (Deut. xvi. 7.), of course while the festival lasted, in order that those Jews, who came from a distance, might return in time for getting in the harvest. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 183, 181.

The fifteenth day is so called in Lev. xxiii. 6. and by Josephus, who expressly terms the second day of unleavened bread the sixteenth day of the month. Ant. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10. $5.

the time of beginning the passover is intimated in John xiii. 1, 2. xviii. 28. 10 Schulzii Archæol. Hebr. pp. 318, 319. That a difference did exist as to and xix. 14. 31. The conjecture above noticed was made by Schulze; and if it could be substantiated, it would reconcile the seeming differences occurring in the evangelists, respecting the time when Christ actually cele brated the passover. Dr. A. Clarke has collected the principal opinions on this much contested point, in his discourse on the Eucharist, pp. 5-24. See also Jennings's Jewish Antiquities, book iii. c. 4. pp. 455-458.

11 The Hebrew word " (seн) means either a lamb or a kid: either was equally proper. The Hebrews, however, in general preferred a lamb. 12 De Bell. Jud. lib. vi. c. 9. §3.

13 The area of the three courts of the temple, besides the rooms and other

• Hottinger has discussed the various opinions on the origin of this usage in a dissertation De rilû dimittendi reum in festo Paschatis, Tempe Helvetie, vol iv. p. 264. From the Jews the custom proceeded to the Chris-places in it, where the paschal victim might be offered, contained upwards tians: Valentinian and several other emperors having issued their edict, that some prisoners should be liberated from their bonds at the annual commemoration of our Saviour's resurrection. This custom obtained among the Venetians till the close of the eighteenth century. (Schulzji Archæol. Hebr. p. 321.)

of 435,600 square cubits; so that there was ample room for more than 500,000 men to be in the temple at the same time. Lamy, De Tabernacule. lib. vii. c. 9. §§ 4, 5.

14 See Lightfoot's Temple Service, ch. xii. § 5. (Works, vol. i. pp. 957-939.)