and some fruit-bearing trees were planted here and there in classic ground; the general aspect which the world presented to the eye was that of a thorny wilderness or a barren desert. The revival of letters, and the reformation of religion reciprocally influenced and promoted each other. The reformers were convinced that ignorance had been one of the principal causes of the corruption of doctrine, and hence they were solicitous of seeing philosophy restored to its purity, and truth to her throne. The boldness with which they attacked religious error and despotism contributed to the advancement of literature: the zeal with which some of them cultivated literature by reflecting a beam of light on biblical criticism, contributed to the cause of religion. When the Romish church reigned with unrivalled dominion in the West, she resisted the study of the oriental and other languages. She decreed the faith of others upon the sole authority of her popes, her councils, and her charters, and too tractable slaves submitted to the imposition. The attack of this system demanded a knowledge of languages, of the principles of sound criticism, and of sacred and profane antiquities. The New Testament, and the Septuagint Version of the Old, required an accurate and extensive acquaintance with Greek, the study of which was particularly promoted by MELANCTHON. The reforming spirit diffused itself beyond the reformers themselves, and many even in the bosom of the Catholic church, as Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives, Faber, and Marius Nizolíus, censured the scholastic method of philosophizing, inveighed against the corruptions of the age, and assiduously cultivated general literature. Besides, the zealous supporters of the Romish hierarchy finding themselves attacked by literary weapons so ably wielded, were necessitated to have recourse to measures of defence, which must of course consist in the cultivation of all possible familiarity with letters, and with ecclesiastical antiquities. But these studies were never pursued to the same extent as amongst Protestants, who gave the first impulse to improvement, and the finishing blow to the massive edifice of corruption. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, though the scholastic philosophy began to fall into contempt, Aristotle retained a considerable degree of authority. The Platonic system having totally declined, the peripatetic philosophy became universally victorious. The Catholics zealously promoted it because of its adaptation to the defence of their system, and among the Protestants many learned men were followers of Aristotle, so far as their superior reverence to evangelical truth would permit. On this point Luther and Melancthon differed in opinion. The former who had studied the schoolmen, at first attached himself to the Nominalists, but afterwards rejected the whole system with contempt. Melancthon is also to be classed amongst the principal supporters of this party. The controversy which had so long subsisted between these parties was marked by every species of polemic, and sometimes even of pugilistic violence. Ludovicus Vives represents himself as having been witness to disputes in which, after having vented upon each other every species of abusive language the parties proceeded to blows, and this not only with their fists, but with clubs and swords, so that many have been wounded and even killed; and Camerarius states that similar disorders prevailed in the academy at Tubingen, which Melancthon could scarcely suppress. Erasmus in his joking manner, alludes to these evils in one of his epistles. "We are making preparations," he writes, "for a war against the Turks, A. D. 1518. With what view soever this be undertaken we ought to pray God that may be profitable not to a few, but to all of us in common. Should we conquer them it is to be supposed (for we shall hardly put them all to the sword) that attempts will be made to bring them over to Christianity. Shall we then put into their hands an Occam, a Durandus, a Scotus, a Gabriel, or an Alvarus? What will they think of us (for after all they are rational creatures) when they hear of our intricate and perplexed subtleties concerning instants, formalities, quiddities and relations?— What, when they observe our quibbling professors so little of a mind, that they dispute together till they turn pale with fury, call names, spit in one another's faces, and even come to blows? What, when they behold the Jacobins fighting for their Thomas, the Minorites for their most refined and seraphic doctors, and the Nominalists and Realists each defending their own jargon, and attacking that of their adversaries ?"-Epistle 329. When Louis XI. king of France, published an edict against the Nominalists, in the year 1474, ordering their books to be fastened up with iron chains in the libraries, that they might not be read, and requiring the youth of the academies to reject their doctrines, their principal leaders fled into England and Germany, and attached themselves to the Reformers. Luther, however, perceiving the support Which the scholastic philosophy afforded to the errors of the Catholic church, and conceiving that the logical and metaphysical sentiments of Aristotle incorporated with it, had occasioned all the celebrated disputes and divisions of previous ages, rejected both; but it is to be remarked that he rather opposed the false doctrines founded on Aristotle, through the ignorance and perversity of mankind, than the principles of philosophizing which he established. "I am persuaded," says he, "that neither Thomas, nor all the Thomists together, ever understood a single chapter of Aristotle." At first Melancthon united with Luther in condemning Aristotle, from a conviction that his principles and modes of reasoning were injurious to genuine Christianity, but he very soon altered his opinion, and thought he might be employed as a valuable auxiliary in the propagation of truth. This circumstance has occasioned his being much misrepresented by certain writers, to whose statements, the system upon which during his whole future life he conducted the education of youth, is an ample refutation. Melancthon attempted the revival of the pure peripatetic philosophy, though he agreed with Luther on the subject of the scholastic system. In several passages of his writings he utterly condemns the latter as generating dissention rather than promoting truth; and though he took Aristotle for his guide, it was only in philosophical inquiries, and so far as his principles might be connected with utility. His devout and penetrating mind always paid a superior deference to the dictates of Revelation. In his oration on Aristotle, he thus expresses himself, "I will add something concerning philosophy, and the reasons for believing that of Aristotle to be the most useful for the church. It is agreed, I think, by all, that logic is of prime importance, because it teaches method and order, it defines fitly, divides justly, connects aptly, judges and separates monstrous associations. Those who are ignorant of this art, tear and mangle the subjects of discourse as puppies do rags. I admire the simile of Plato, who highly extols it as resembling the fire which Prometheus brought from heaven, to kindle a light in the minds of men by which they might be able to form correct ideas. But he does not furnish us with the precepts of the art, so that we cannot dispense with the logic of Aristotle. That of the Stoics is not extant, and instead of being a simple method of reasoning fit for the explanation of profound subjects, it appears to have been a complete labyrinth of intricacies, and in fact a mere corruption of the art." authority of the prince, yet secretly despised and disparaged learning, and slandered Melancthon; the printing offices did not possess any copies of the Greek writings, and the students were necessitated to write out passages as they were explained to them for their own use. Melancthon was considered in the German schools in the light of a COMMON PRECEPTOR. Uniting the study of the Aristotelian philosophy with ancient learning in general, the plan which he adopted was to extract out of Aristotle all that was essentially good, to illustrate it by the aids of literature and genuine criticism, and to adapt it to the principles of true religion. Nor did he follow Aristotle implicitly; whatever was valuable in the writings and doctrines of the Stoics and Platonics, and what-epistle to Titus. Luther speaks of him in various ever his own genius suggested, was incorporated into his system. This plan was pursued in most of the German academies under the sanction both of the civil and ecclesiastical authorities, and from its first promoter was denominated the Philippic method. In all the Lutheran schools abridgments of the various branches of philosophy by Melancthon, composed in a familiar style, were constantly and for a long period taught; of this nature were his Logic, Ethics, Physics, and his Treatise on the Soul. Nor did he confine his attention to a few subjects only, but with the most exemplary zeal and assiduity, reduced almost every art and science into a form and arrangement which inconceivably abbreviated the labor of the student. Melancthon, with a laudable impatience, instantly applied himself to the removal of these evils. The desert which spread its vast and cheerless extent before his eyes overgrown with weeds, he was anxious by assiduous cultivation to convert into a literary paradise. In the first year of his residence at Wittemberg he read lectures to crowded auditories upon Homer, and upon the Greek text of St. Paul's letters to his friends in the highest terms of commendation, stating that his lectures were so extremely popular, that all the principal theologians attended him, and high and low became inspired with the love of Greek. Amongst other epithets, he calls him the most learned and most truly Gre cian, Philip Melancthon. "He is a mere boy and a stripling if you consider his age; but our great man and master, if you reflect on the variety of his knowledge, which extends to almost every book. He is distinguished not only for his acquaintance, but for his critical knowledge of both languages, nor is he unskilled in Hebrew learning." The excessive ardor of his mind produced a con siderable effect upon his constitution, and the Elector Frederic addressed an affectionate letter to him on the subject, wherein he admonishes him to be careful of his health, and not to exert himself too much, offering him the best wines his cellar could produce, and reminding him of Paul's language to Timothy, to "use a little wine for his stomach's sake and his frequent infirmities." 1 Tim. 5:23. "This," he stated, was no less obligatory than any other admonition." Vitus Winshemius, a very competent judge, speaks of these publications in the highest terms of commendation, as shortening the Aristotelian road to knowledge. He characterizes their author, with great propriety, as resembling the industrious bee flying through the fields of universal science in all directions, and collecting the choicest and sweetest portions from the prime productions of every writer. On various occasions Melancthon publicly delivered discourses on the method of studying philoso- chair, when he commenced an attack upon prevail Melancthon was scarcely seated in his professor's phy, and his opinions were so universally reve- ing prejudices, and announced a plan of reform. renced, that he acquired the highest fame and the He determined that youth should study as well as most useful influence. The precepts of art and science had been hitherto very imperfectly taught, in possession both of motives and means for this frequent the university, and that they should be put and with a great intermixture of truth and error. purpose. His zeal appears never to have diminishThese he systematized and reduced to order; re-ed through the course of his long and laborious life. jecting what was erroneous, explaining what was obscure, and arranging what was confused. Several learned men from Italy and Great Britain, who became tutors in the German schools, and assiduously promoted the peripatetic philosophy, materially assisted him in these laudable efforts. It is to be lamented indeed, that the learned of Italy, France, England, and Germany, did not totally discard Aristotle as a guide, and strike out a more independent plan; but we must not despise the light though it be mingled with some darkness, nor undervalue the labors of distinguished men, because they did not undertake what we deem desirable, or accomplish what is now perceived to have been practicable. In the genuine spirit of a literary Reformer, instead of merely pursuing the course which custom had prescribed or indolence would have dictated, Melancthon applied his active mind to the discovery of the best means of inspiring a taste for literature, and of promoting the great ends of study. When he first arrived at Wittemberg nothing could exceed the miserable condition of philosophy and letters as well as of religion, so that he found an ample and unoccupied field of important labor. The liberal arts and sciences were sunk into the most wretched state, and concealed in the profoundest darkness. So completely were all men plunged into abject barbarism, that many, though they dared not venture upon open hostility, being restrained by the | It was the least of all his distinctions to have acvice both to the cause of literature and religion. quired a great name, for he rendered essential ser A few weeks only had elapsed since his arrival at Wittemberg, when he delivered in the month of October an oration, to which some references have already been made, on reforming the studies of youth. He congratulates them on being placed under the auspices of the illustrious Frederic, and on their numerous advantages for the acquisition of learning; and while attentive to the various other departments of human knowledge, he particularly urges them to the study of the Greek writers and philosophy; "but let no one trifle in philosophizing lest he should at length totally lose sight of common sense. Let him rather select the best things from the best authors, for the purposes of improvement both in the knowledge of nature and in morals. The study of Greek literature is of essential importance; it in fact comprehends universal science, for their writers discuss morals in a most copious and appropriate manner. The treatise of Aristotle on this subject, the laws of Plato, and the best of their poets, may be read with the utmost advantage. Homer amongst the Greeks may be called a fountain of knowledge; Horace and Virgil hold a similar pre-eminence amongst the Romans." He speaks in recommendation of history as cal culated to direct us in the skilful management of public and private affairs. will devolve on me to stimulate your diligence. Homer is in our hands and the Greek of Paul's Epistle to Titus, and you must pay great attention to ascertain by the strain of the discourse, the divine truths intended to be revealed. "Here it is proper to remark, how much gramknowledge of sacred mysteries, and what a difference appears among commentators, some of whom are versed in the Greek language, others ignorant of it; and in various cases what mistakes are the consequence. If we trifle on this subject, be assured we shall inevitably suffer for it. "But," he adds, "the manner in which you apply to sacred studies, is of the greatest importance. These, above all other pursuits, require judgment, experience, and diligence; and remember that the perfume of divine ointments, so to speak, far sur-matical accuracy in language conduces to the passes the aromatics of human literature. Under the guidance of God, the cultivation of the liberal arts will be rendered subservient to sacred objects, as Synesius intimates to Herculianus 'the noblest employment of life, is to use philosophy as a guide to divine knowledge.' If this should not be quite obvious to any one, let him consider that brass was "Enter then, O ye youths, enter upon your course sent by the King of Tyre, for the temple of Solo- of wholesome instruction with this sentiment in mon, as well as superior metal: so it is in reference your constant recollection, whoever determinately to theology which comprehends Hebrew and Greek sets about a business has half accomplished it. Do literature, for the Latins drink from these streams not be afraid of becoming wise: study the Roman and sources, and those foreign languages are requi- authors, but especially attach yourselves to those site to be known, lest we should appear nothing of Greece, without the knowledge of whom the better than ciphers amongst theologians. But there former cannot be properly understood, and whose the accuracies and beauties of language will be compositions will conduce to the knowledge of geseen, and the genuine sense of terms and expres- neral literature, and more than any others to the sions discovered with noontide evidence. Having formation of the mind to taste and elegance. I canascertained the literal meaning of words, we shall not help anticipating the effect of your example, and be able to pursue the course of argument notwith-fancying that I can see a few years hence Germany standing any frigid glosses, discordant comments, in various parts reviving in literature, the general or other hinderances that may be interposed. state of morals ameliorated, and the minds of men, "Whenever we approach the fountains of truth, at present barbarously wild and barren as the dewe shall begin to grow wise in Christ, his command- sert, at length tamed, so to speak, and cultivated! ments will become obvious, and we shall be regaled by the blessed nectar of heavenly wisdom. When we have gathered the clusters amongst the vineyards of Engedi,' the bridegroom will come 'leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills,' and with the 'kisses of his mouth, and the savor of his good ointments poured forth,' will anoint those who are conducted into the palaces of Eden. United to him we shall live and thrive, contemplating Zion and Salem in the secret silence of adoration. Such is the fruit of celestial knowledge, which will always prove worthy of our supreme regard when pure and unimpaired by human sub-not to useless or injurious pursuits, and confidently tleties. "The great importance then of giving a new impulse and direction to your studies, and the manner in which they are likely to become conducive to your mental and moral character are sufficiently obvious. Who can help deploring the state of our immediate predecessors, who, abandoning the light of learning, plunged into Tartarean darkness, and took up with the very dregs of knowledge? And who is not affected at the lamentable state of our own times deprived by negligence of our ancient authors, and of all the advantages which would have accrued from their writings had they been preserved? You should understand, therefore, the difficulties which attend the acquisition of the most valuable knowledge; nevertheless, industry will so overcome them, that I trust you will obtain that which is of real importance with far less expense of time and trouble than is generally devoted to what is absolutely useless. "Your tutors will undertake the labor of making proper selections for you, and separating the frivolous from the useful in conducting you to the stores of Roman and Grecian literature. Let some of your leisure hours be occupied especially with the latter, and I will use my utmost endeavors to afford you every facility. From the very first I shall be careful to alleviate the laboriousness attending the grammatical part of language, by reading portions of the best writers for illustration. I shall notice, in passing, whatever may relate to the conduct of life, or the general knowledge of obscure subjects, so that by proper application we shall be able to accomplish the circle of human learning, and it "Henceforth then you will devote yourselves to study, not only for the sake of your own personal advantage and that of posterity, but for the honor of our immortal Elector, who is by universal concurrence the best of princes, and has nothing more at heart than the promotion of literature. For myself I am resolved to try my utmost, both to accomplish the desires of the most pious of princes and the success of your studies. And with this design I solemnly devote myself, O ye illustrious princes and superintendents of this university, to your service: consecrating my youth to solid learning and depending upon your kindness and protection." CHAPTER III. The State of Religion Relics-Indulgences-Tetzel-Progress of the Controversy with the Court of Rome-Melancthon's Narrative of Luther-Public Disputation at Leipsic-Its Effects-Paper war between Melancthon and Eckius-Concise but satisfactory pamphlet and admirable spirit of the former. 1518 to 1520. TURNING from the schools of literature to the church of Christ, we find that, in reference to religion as well as science, Melancthon was called to Wittemberg at a most critical juncture. That we may duly appreciate his labors and form a correct idea of the state of ecclesiastical affairs, it will be requisite to glance at a few preceding events. The Catholic church was at this period quiet and reposing. Though many circumstances had occurred to prepare the public mind for the introduction of a new order of things-though some portentous gatherings of the no distant tempest might have been discernable to attentive observers, when not only private persons but distinguished princes upbraided the despotism, the fraud, the avarice, the extortion, the licentiousness of the popish hierarchy, and even demanded a reform of abuses by means of a general council; yet the right of private judgment was not asserted, the supreme authority and infallibility of the Pope in religious affairs was not disputed, and the Roman Pontiff felt the utmost self-consciousness of security. The commotions which had been excited in some former ages by the Waldenses, Albigenses and Beghards, and more recently by the Bohemians, seemed to be at an end: and as in nature, the storm is frequently preceded LIFE OF MELANCTHON. by a peculiar stillness diffused around, when the | from the pulpit, that Scotus had rendered greater Luther says of the monks, "Their fasting is more easy to them than our eating is to us. To one fasting day belonged three days of devouring. Every friar to his evening collation has two quarts of beer, a quart of wine, spice cakes or bread prepared with spice and salt, the better to relish their drink. Thus went these poor fasting brethren, they grew so pale and wan that they were like the fiery angels." There existed a particular order of friars in Italy, called Fratres Ignorantia, that is, Brethren of They were obliged to take solemn Ignorance. oaths that they would neither know, learn, nor understand any thing at all, but answer all questions with the word NESCIO. Truly, said Luther, all friars are well worthy of that title, for they only read and babble out words, but feel no concern to understand them. They say, although we understand not the words, yet the Holy Ghost understands them, and the devil flies away. This was the friars' highest argument, who are enemies to all liberal arts and learning, for the Pope and the Cardinals conclude thus: "Should these brethren study and be learned, they would master us, therefore saccum per neccum, hang a bag or sack about their necks, and send them begging through cities, towns, and countries." But something worse than ignorance attached to the monkish fraternity, of which two notable instances mentioned by Luther, will abundantly satisWhen a fy the reader. In the monastery at Isenach, says he, stands an image which I have seen. wealthy person came thither to pray to it, (it was Mary with her child,) the child turned away his face from the sinner to the mother, as if it refused to give ear to his praying, and was therefore to seek mediation and help of Mary the mother. But if the sinner gave liberally to that monastery, then the child turned to him again; and if he promised to give more, then the child showed itself very But this image was friendly and loving, and stretched out its arms over him in the form of a cross. made hollow within, and prepared with locks, lines, and screws; and behind it stood a knave to move them, and so were the people mocked and deceived, taking it to be a miracle wrought by divine providence. A Dutchman making his confession to a masspriest at Rome, promised by an oath to keep secret whatever the priest should impart to him till he came into Germany, upon which the priest gave him a leg of the ass on which Christ rode into Jerusalem, very neatly bound up in silken cloth, and said, "This is the holy relic on which the Lord Christ did corporeally sit, and with his sacred legs touched this ass's leg!" The Dutchman was wonderfully pleased, and carried the holy relic with him into Germany, and when he came upon the borders, boasted of his holy possession in the presence of four others of his comrades, at the same time showing it to them; but each of the four having also received a leg from the priest and promised the same secrecy, they inquired with astonishment "whether that ass had five legs?" By the way, they forgot that the latter would have been much less of a miracle than the former. A Dutch schoolmaster in contempt of a shameless friar, who had expressed his dislike of the liberal arts and sciences, gave his school-boys this Latin for an exercise, monachus, a devil, diabolus, a friar. The subject of sacred relics is inexhaustible, but we Spolatine, the celeshall only add a few words. brated secretary of Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Sancta Catharina ab astu mundi transfer nos ad drew up a curious catalogue of sacred relics pre Paradisi! aperi januas Paradisi!" MELANCTH. Declam. Tom. VI. served in the principal church at Wittemberg. It contained the enormous number of nineteen thousand three hundred and seventy-four. Previously to the more correct ideas of religion which he receiv-| been a practice in the different governments of Eued from Luther, the Elector was a great collector of rope, to allow the payment of a fine to the magisthese rarities. But the relics in the churches of trate, by way of compounding for the punishment Hall were still more curious. These precious spe- due to an offence. The avaricious and unprincicimens of superstition are of very high antiquity. pled court of Rome adopted a similar plan in reliIn the year 359, the Emperor Constantius caused gious concerns, and intent only on the augmentathe remains of St. Andrew and St. Luke to be re- tion of revenue, it even rejoiced in the degradation moved to the temple of the Twelve Apostles at of the human mind and character. The officers of Constantinople, from which precedent the search the Roman chancery published a book containing for saints and martyrs, whose bodies were supposed the exact sum to be paid for any particular sin. Ă to possess extraordinary virtues, became general. deacon guilty of murder was absolved for twenty The wonder seems to be how a sufficient number crowns. A bishop or abbot might assassinate for could be procured, to serve even by piecemeal for so three hundred livres. An ecclesiastic might viomany ages and churches; but this apparent difficulty late his vows of chastity even with the most aggrais solved by father John Ferand, who asserts, that vating circumstances for the third part of that sum. "God was pleased to multiply and re-produce them To these and similar items, it is added, "Take nofor the devotion of the faithful." Instead of swell- tice particularly that such graces and dispensations ing the inventory to thousands, a specimen of a few are not granted to the POOR, for not having wheremay afford the reader some data by which to ascer-with to pay they cannot be comforted." Taxa Cancel tain whether the probability is that they were mul-lar Romana. tiplied by divine omnipotence, or by human credulity. BURNING! The necessity of some reform of abuses, even the more enlightened Catholics themselves admitted, but they had no conception of the extent to which it was about to be carried, and which is worthy the most attentive consideration. Man usually employs great means to accomplish insignificant purposes; but God produces the greatest effects by the smallest apparent effort. Hence, there is a characteristic difference between divine and human methods of operation, which was never more remarkably conspicuous than in the history of the Reformation. Never, consequently, did any work exhibit more visible traces of a divine interposition. The origin of indulgences is to be traced to a time far antecedent to the period now under review. They were resorted to in the twelfth cen tury for the purpose of private emolument, the bishops assuming to themselves this dispensing power, whenever they wanted money for their private pleasures, or for the exigencies of the church. They soon became a source of inexhaustible opulence, and the abbots and monks who did not possess the same authority, but quite as much avarice and craft, about the relics of saints in solemn procession, and invented the counterpart of this plan by carrying permitting the infatuated multitude to touch and kiss them for certain stipulated prices. The Roman pontiffs soon interposed to share this profitable traffic of indulgences with the bishops, and at length to appropriate it to themselves. And with strange temerity they ventured not only to publish plenary remission for all temporal penalties, but for all the punishments predicted for trans gressors in a future state of existence. The first pretence to justify this proceeding, was the holy war carried on by European princes against the infidels of Palestine, but this benefit was very soon extended to less important occasions. The monstrous doctrine thus originated was modified and embellished by Saint Thomas in the fol lowing century, and contained these propositions, "that there existed an immense treasure of merit, composed of the pious deeds and virtuous actions which the saints had performed beyond what was necessary for their own salvation, and which were therefore applicable to the benefit of others: that the guardian and dispenser of this precious treasure was the Roman pontiff, and that of consequence he was empowered to assign to such as he thought proper a portion of this inexhaustible source of merit, suitable to their respective guilt, and sufficient to deliver them from the punishment due to their crimes." When Leo X. took the Papal chair, he found the revenues of the church exhausted by the vast projects and ambitious enterprizes of his immediate predecessors, and not only was he naturally disinclined to economize, and liberal in his encouragement of the arts and learned men, but extremely de- In the pontificate of Leo X. Albert, Elector of sirous of aggrandizing the Medicean family, of Metz, and archbishop of Magdeburg, who was soon maintaining a splendid establishment, and of con- afterwards made a cardinal, had the commission tributing to the exterior magnificence of the Catho- for dispensing indulgences in Germany, and en lic church. Julius II. had granted indulgences to joyed a considerable share of the profits.s all who contributed to the building of the church of agent in Saxony was John Tetzel, a Dominican St. Peter at Rome, and under the same pretext Leo friar, a profligate in his morals, but a man of pouradopted a similar plan of obtaining money, "Pope lar eloquence, and what was still better for the pied Leo X.," says Sleidan, " making use of that power pose, of most consummate effrontery. He carried which his predecessors had usurped over all Chris-on a very extensive traffic in indulgences, in conse tian churches, sent abroad into all kingdoms his quence of offering them to the ignorant multitud letters and bulls, with ample promises of the full at a very low price. He boasted that "he had pardon of sins, and of eternal salvation to such as saved more souls from hell by his indulgences, than would purchase the same with money!" It is obvious that the multiplication of crimes in preaching." He affirmed, if any man purchased St. Peter had converted to Christianity by his a superstitious and dissolute age, would be propor- them, his soul may rest secure respecting its salva the mo |