miserably, while the almost casual work | true and the right, and of forbidding of his hand, the colonization of Virginia, thereby what Christians are bound to congrew in the end to a splendid success. sider fratricidal war. It has been mainly Those who believe in the Divine Leader of men, seem to see clearly here the work of the higher Hand. but an idea; but if we dig deep enough, we shall find that it lies at the root of the kind of authority which the Christian RoThe discoveries of Columbus of course man Emperors, the Holy Roman Empire, necessitated a new Papal distribution of and the Holy Roman Church, which rose the sovereignty of the world. The mat- to the supremacy on the wreck of the Imter was at once urged by Ferdinand, and perial endeavour to rule Christendom, considered in the Papal councils. It ap- successively enjoyed. To some limited pears to have been handled in a fair and extent these successive institutions exerjust spirit. A meridian line was drawn, cised a kind of sacred authority in Eupassing through a point 100 leagues west rope, and when the Teutonic peoples of the Azores; and Alexander VI., a found at length that the Roman Church man to whom the most terrible incests and as a sacred authority was as dire a failure murders were freely attributed by the gos- as the rest, and threw off her yoke, they sip of every Court in Europe, took up- were sorely perplexed as to how they on himself, in the exercise of his supreme might find or found something which right, to decide that all unknown lands should stand forth in the room of that inwhich might be discovered lying to the stitution which had for ages claimed to be east of the line should belong to Portu- the organ of Christ in the Christian world. gal, and all to the west, to Spain. The King James was not a very wise or deeplanguage of the Bull is very large and ab-hearted man, but he had some sense that solute, but it is amusing that it contains there was a great want to be supplied, a no hint of a reflection that the empires great gap to be filled, which had been left would meet and clash on the other side by the subsidence of Rome, when he forof the world. It is easy, of course, formulated the doctrine, which Elizabeth— us Protestants to speak sharply of the Papal arrogance, and there is something truly amazing in the language of the proclamation which Ferdinand founds on it, and which Ojeda was to publish to the Indians. But perhaps we should do more wisely to consider the fearful expenditure of blood and treasure which it probably spared. It was recognized on both sides as an authoritative settlement; and, while it gave birth to some conflicts, on the whole it made something like peace all along the line. So valid was it esteemed that our Edward IV., a keen trader, felt himself precluded from enterprises on the African Coast when the Bull - the earlier one, of course, of Martin V., of 1441was pleaded in bar; while the Moluccas, being found after a good deal of contention to fall within the Spanish hemisphere, were purchased peacefully by Portugal, at a cost of 350,000 ducats, from Spain.‡ The truth is, that ever since Christendom was fairly constituted, there has been the idea in Christian hearts that there ought to be some organ of authority capable of declaring and maintaining the The material portions will be found in a note to p. 2, vol. iii., of Humboldt's "Examen Critique," &c. The line was afterwards drawn by agreement further to the west. Helps, i. 242, note. Not that at any time it would bear very much who, whatever she was, was not doctrinaire - did not formulate, of the Divine right of kings. The Puritans tried hard in their turn to supply it by the letter of the Divine word. Both having failed to make the kind of order which men dream of and long for in a Christian realm, since the Restoration we have had to rely on the enlightened conscience of Christian society. That conscience being still but dimly enlightened and in need of culture, we find ourselves in sore perplexities. The want of an order with a recognized sacred sanction is the cause of the deep spiritual unrest of our times. Rome offers her authority as its basis. We smile at the vain imagination; but sadly: for while we see what must be the principle of the order, the realization of it seems far away. It is strange that Mazzini, at the opposite end of the scale to the Pope or King James, seemed to claim the same kind of inspiration, carrying a Divine authority, for the free public judgment of the people. But we must return to the North-West. The Reformation opened the eyes of Englishmen, and took the Papal bugbear out of their way. But very substantial difficulties remained. The Indian commerce had developed immensely the naval skill and resources of the Spanish and strain, as the expeditions of Catholic France, and the Portuguese Empires. In 1580, they both pleas offered for them, show. fell into one hand through the acquisition of the Portuguese throne by Philip of Sebastian Cabot gave of the enterprise is Spain and this made the crisis which the well known and need not detain us here. Armada fight terminated, so desperate for The discovery preceded by about a year England. But till then the two monarch- that of the mainland of America by Coies divided between them the dominion lumbus. To the English belongs the of the broad seas. England found her- honour of the modern discovery of that self cut off from the vast advantages great continent, on which their race was which the new commerce afforded. The destined to play such a distinguished matter was very earnestly considered by part. We say modern discovery; for the English statesmen and merchants dur- there is no doubt that the daring Scandiing the earlier years of the 16th century; navian sailors were there before them, and expeditions were organized for the and that from about the year 1000 to the purpose of conducting such explorations year 1347, there was frequent intercourse as were possible, without trenching on between Greenland and America. It is established rights in the newly-discovered not easy either to disprove the truth of a regions of the earth. The idea of wrest- Welsh discovery, though the evidence ing the sceptre of the broad ocean from for it is poor; but there seems less reathe Catholic powers belongs to Elizabeth's reign. To us, as to Spain, the first inspiration came from Italy. Cabot is the name of our patriarchs of discovery. There were two, John and Sebastian, father and son, but it was with Sebastian that English maritime adventure had chiefly to do. John Cabot was a Venetian*; Columbus was a Genoese; at least we have the evidence of his will to that effect, "Siendo yo nacido en Ge-tions of Cabot bore little immediate fruit. nova." They were equally famous as pilots, and were probably the ablest mariners of their time. It is remarkable that, as in art, literature, politics, and commerce, so too in discovery, Italy led the way for Europe, though she could not keep the lead. She lit the torch of modern civilization at the old hearth fires, whose embers were still glowing in her great cities, and then passed it on to hardier peoples, who had to play their part, not on the landlocked Mediterranean of Europe, but on the Atlantic, the Mediterranean of the world. The fact of the discovery of the North American continent by Cabot in 1497, under the auspices of Henry VII., though with little help from him, is now generally accepted. It has been keenly disputed, and is not without its difficulties; but the balance of evidence is clearly on the affirmative side. The account which son to doubt the tale of the voyage of the Venetian Zeno from Friseland (the Færroe Isles), towards the end of the 14th century. But the voyage of the Portuguese Cortereal to the Land of Codfish in 1463 or 1464, which Sir John Barrow accepts as authentic, belongs to the world of fables, or perhaps, to speak plainly, of lies. The Cortereals were not there till the year 1500.* The expedi Henry the Seventh was cold and cautious, and much occupied with domestic troubles; while, as Mr. Beste, writing in the reign of Elizabeth, quaintly observes, Navigation in the time of Henry VII., was very rawe, but it is now in her Majestie's reign growen to his highest perfection." 66 But in the reign of Henry VIII. the subject was stirred in earnest by Mr. Robert Thorne, a merchant of Bristol and a most able man. He addressed a remarkable and closely reasoned paper to the king, some portions of which I extract in full. The whole may be read in Hakluyt. It is of deep interest, for it really opens up the question, the solution of which has been sought with daring courage and indomitable energy for three hundred years, and eludes us still. The North-West passage has been found, and has proved an utterly barren discovery. But the open Polar sea of which Mr. Thorne also had vision has yet to be ex * At least he was a naturalized Venetian, probably he too was born on Genoese territory. † Lorenzo Pasqualigo, a Venetian merchant in Lon-plored, and its exploration may yield to don, wrote an account of Cabot's discovery to his broth- the English discovery of the American Continent-in which he proves conclusively that it was 1497-in the "Archæologia," 1871. The reader will find a brief but able discussion of the whole subject in Mr. Major's Introduction to the "Select Letters of Columbus," published for the Hakluyt Society. Second Edit. 1870. In an appendix to Mr. Laing's translation of the Heimskringla, there is a very interesting narrative of the Scandinavian Expeditions referred to above. us very remarkable results. Mr. Thorne writes thus to King Henry: routes he adds: "Without doubt they shall finde there (under the Equinoctiall) the richest landes and Islands of the worlde of golde, precious stones, balmes, spices, and other things that we here esteeme most: which come out of strange countries and may returne the same way. By this it appeareth that your grace hath not only a great advantage of the riches, but also your subjects shall not travell halfe of the way that others doe, which goe round about as aforesaid." - Hakluyt, i. 257. In a letter to Dr. Ley, Henry's ambassador with the Emperor, he deals with distances, and opens as fair and false a dream as ever beguiled mankind, of a near way by the Polar seas to Cathay: "Now if from the sayd Newfoundlands the sea be navigable, there is no doubt but sayling Northward and passing the Pole, descending the Equinoctiall line, we shall hit these islands (the Spice islands), and it should be a much shorter way than the Spaniards or the Portingalls have. For we be distant from the Pole but 30 and 9 degrees, and from the Pole to the Equinoctiall be 90°, the which added together be an hundred twenty and nine degrees, leagues 2489, miles 7440, where we should find these islands." Hakluyt, i. 243. "Now I considering this your noble courage and desire, and also perceiving that your grace may at your pleasure, to your greater glory, by a godly meane, with little cost, perill or labour, to your grace or any of your subjects, amplifie and inrich this your sayd Realme, I know it is my bounden duety to manifest this secret unto your Grace, which hitherto, as I suppose, hathe beene hid; which is that with a small number of ships there may be discovered divers new lands and kingdomes, in the which without doubt your grace shall winne perpetuall glory, and your subjectes infinite profite. To which places there is left one way to discover, which is into the North: for that of the foure partes of the worlde, it seemeth three parts are discovered by other Princes. For out of Spaine they have discovered all the Indies and seas occidentall, and out of Portingall all the Indies and seas orientall, so that by this part of the orient and occident they have compassed the world. So that now rest to be discovered the sayd north parts, the which it seemeth to mee is onely your charge and duty. Because the situation of this your Realme is thereunto nearest and aptest of all other; and also for that you have already taken it in hand." These representations had weight with Then speaking of the ease of the naviga- the King. In 1527 "two faire ships" tion he says, For they being past this were sent out, but the result was disaslittle way which they named so dangerous trous. The ships were cast away on New(which may be two or three leagues be-foundland, and but little is known of the fore they come to the Pole, and as much more after they passe the Pole), it is cleere that from thence foorth the seas and landes are as temperate as in these partes, and that then it may be at the will and pleasure of the mariners to choose whether they will say by the coastes that be colde temperate or hotte. If they will goe towards the Orient they shall enjoy the region of all the Tartarians that extend towards the mid-day, and from thence they may goe and proceede to the land of the Chinas, and from thence to the land of Cathaio orientall which is of all the maine land most orien- The next expedition was that of the tall that can be reckoned from our habi- gallant Sir Hugh Willoughby, to which tation. And if from thence they doe we have already referred. In its organcontinue their navigation following the ization and equipment we are able to trace coasts that returne towards the occident Sebastian Cabot's masterly hand. they shall fall in with Malaca, and so with object was to discover a passage along all the Indies which we call orientall, and the northern sea-board of Asia. It is the following the way, may returne hither by first of a series of brave attempts to force the Cape of Buona Speranza and thus that ice-bound passage, in which the they shall compasse the whole worlde." Dutch chiefly distinguished themselves, Then giving the alternative of two other and the hapless Barents earned for him fate of their crews. In 1536 one Master Henry Hore, "a man of goodly stature, great courage, and given to the study of cosmographie," sailed on the same quest with results more disastrous still. It is notable that one fourth of the expedition was composed of gentlemen of the Inns of Court, and from the upper ranks of society. The history of the voyage is a sad and shameful one. There were dark tales of cannibalism and other horrors. But the captain behaved nobly. Hakluyt has preserved the record. (Vol. iii. 169, 4to ed.) Its self an immortal fame. The ships, of north-east. He was not destined to make whose sailing there is a picturesque de- the experiment; his noble life was sacriscription in the narrative of Clement ficed in another though kindred enterAdams, parted company. Chancellor, the prise. The last glimpse which we have pilot, landed in Russia, reached the Court, of him before his little bark went down is and laid the foundation of that commer- one of the loftiest and most beautiful cial intercourse which became so fruitful passages of Elizabethan history. There in this and the following reigns. Wil- can be no question that his treatise exerloughby met a darker fate. The next cised a very powerful influence in stimuyear some Russian fishermen found the lating enterprise towards the north-west. ships frozen in and the crew frozen to He is its true patriarch, while Martin Frodeath. His journals were recovered. It bisher, a man of the same heroic temper, seems that he reached Nova Zembla, and though of coarser fibre, is its pioneer. possibly Spitzbergen; but that depends Frobisher was probably a South Yorkvery much on the exact sense in which a shire man from Doncaster, of good midtechnical nautical term is employed. Pur- dle-class family. We know little about chas is clearly perversely wrong about the him save through the "actions" which voyage. Those interested in the subject are part of his country's history. It ap. will find an able discussion of it in the pears that he was sent to school in Lonintroduction to "Voyages to the North don under the care of "Sir John Yorke, West," edited by Mr. Rundall for the knight, his kinseman, who perceiving him Hakluyt Society in 1849. Another north- to be of great spirit and bolde courage, eastern attempt was made by Borrough in and natural hardness of body, sent him to 1553. He reached Nova Zembla, but be- the hote Countrye of Guinea," on a voying driven back by east winds, returned, age. We next meet with him scheming and reached England safely. The ac- a voyage to the north-west. We have a count of the sailing of the expedition is narrative of the three expeditions which well known, but it is worth quoting, as it he commanded, by Mr. George Beste, who brings Sebastian Cabot in his lusty old served in the second and third; and there age upon the scene. "The 27th, being are other subsidiary narratives preserved Monday, the right worshippful Sebastian in Hakluyt. There is too a curious MS. Cabota came aboord, with divers gentle- a good deal defaced, in the British Musemen and gentlewomen, who after they um, by one Michael Lok, who seems to had viewed our pinnesse and tasted of have borne to his cost a large part of the such cheere as we could make them expense of the equipment, from which aboord, they went on shore, giving to the we gather several interesting details mariners right liberall rewards; and the about the first voyage, which is our presgood old gentleman Master Cabota, gave ent subject. Rear-Admiral Collinson has to the poore most liberall almes, wishing collected from the Public Records a great them to pray for the good fortune and deal of very minute and curious informaprosperous successe of the Serchthrift, tion concerning the details of the expediour pinnesse. And then at the sign of tions, which he has published in his adthe Christopher, he and his friends ban-mirable edition of "Frobisher's Three ketted and made me and them that were in Voyages" (Hakluyt Society, 1867).† Mr. the company great cheere: and for very joy that he had to see the towardnes of our intended discovery, he entred into the dance himselfe, amongst the rest of the young and lusty company. Which being ended, he and his friends departed most gently, commending us to the governance of Almighty God."— Hakluyt, i. 306. Meanwhile some of the more thoughtful men in England were pondering over the likelihood of a passage to Cathay by the northwest. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the Bayard of sailors, wrote an able treatise to prove, according to the notions available for proof in his day, that the north-west passage would be found easier, nearer, and in every way more commodious for England than that by the surer, Beste prefaces his narrative by an elaborate and curious, though wearisome, treatise on geographical matters in general, as understood in his day; always, however, with the north-west expedition in view; and he offers, moreover, a very comfortable but fallacious demonstration There is surely something almost prophetic in the feare or danger of death shunneth his countries service, There is a very interesting and complete account of the voyage and the equipment in Mr. Fox Bourne's "English Seamen under the Tudors." He has thrown, by his researches, much additional light on many points of interest. of "the commodious and moderate heat, weary discourse about the climate of the of the region under the Poles." The ge- Polar regions, he thus brings Frobishier ographical part is dry reading enough; on the scene, and the first north-western but there are some touches in the exor-expedition gets under way. "Which dium on the wider aspects of the matter, thing being well considered, and familwhich it is worth while to extract; much iarly knowen to our generall Captaine of it is hardly obsolete yet. It takes a Frobisher, as well for that he is thoroughvery lofty view "of the invincible minds ly furnished of the knowledge of the of our Englishe nation, who have never sphere, and all other skilles appertaining left anye worthy thing unattempted nor to the art of navigation, as also for the anye parte almoste of the whole world un-confirmation he hath of the same by many searched. . . . The Englishman in these yeares experience, both by sea and land, oure dayes, in his notable discoveries to and being persuaded of a new and neerer the Spaniard and Portingale is nothing passage to Cataya, than by Capo d'buona inferior, and for his hard adventures and Speranza, which the Portugalles yeerly valiant resolutions greatly superior." He use. He began first with himselfe to denumbers among the fruits of the expe- vise, and then with his friendes to condition: "Christ's name spread; the gos- ferre, and layde a playne platte unto them, pell preached; . . . shipping and sea- that that voyage was not onely possible fairing men have bin employed; naviga- by the north-weast, but also, as he could tion and the navie (which is the chief prove, easie to be performed. And furstrength of our realm) maintayned; and ther, he determined and resolved wythe gentlemen in the sea service, for the bet- himselfe, to go make full proofe thereof, ter service of their country, wel experi- and to accomplishe, or bring true certifienced." "Hyr Most Excellent Majestie cate of the truth, or else never to remay now stand assured to have many tourne againe, knowing this to be the more tried, able and sufficient men onely thing of the worlde that was left against time of need, that are of valour yet undone, whereby a notable mind gret, for any gret adventure, and of gov-mighte be made famous and fortunate. ernment good for any good place of ser- But although his will were greate to pervice." He betrays the sore feeling which forme this notable voyage, whereof hee Henry VII., by his hesitating policy with had conceyved in his mind a great hope regard to Columbus, had left in the minds by sundry sure reasons and secret intelof thoughtful Englishmen, in the follow-ligence, whiche heere, for sundry causes, ing passage: "Which sundry countreys I leave untouched-yet he wanted altoto possess and obteyne, as it is an easie gether meanes and abilitie to set forward thing, so I would not have our Englishe and performe the same. Long tyme he nation to be slacke therein, leaste perhaps conferred with his private friendes of agayne they overshoote in refusing oc- these secrets, and made also many offers casion offered, as it was in the time of K. for the performing of the same in effect Henry VII, when all the West Indies unto sundrie merchants of our countrey, were first proffered to the Englishmen to above fifteen yeares before he attempted be given into their hands, which they lit- the same... .. But perceyving that hardtle regarding, was afterwards offered to ly he was hearkened unto of the merthe Spaniards, who presently accepted the chants, whiche never regarde vertue withoccasion, and now enjoye the infinite treas-oute sure, certaine, and present gaynes, ure and commoditie thereof.* I would hee repayred to the courte,* (from whence, not wishe Englishmen to be nowe unlike as from the fountain of our commonthemselves, for in all the later discoveries the English nation hath bin as forward as any other." All which surely may afford to us matter of fruitful reflection at the present day. After a great deal of * It was an unspeakable blessing, to England at any rate, that she missed the opportunity; and that her lot in the new world was cast by Providence in regions whose treasuries, not the pick and the melting-pot, but the axe and the ploughshare would open. How it would have fared with the poor Indians is another matter. It is well that we were not tempted as the Spaniards were. But there are passages in the history of Hawkins and others, which deepen our thankfulness that the opportunity was lost. wealth, all good causes have theyr chiefe encrease and mayntenance), and there layde open to manye great estates and learned men, the plot and summe of hys devise. And amongst manye honourable myndes whyche favoured hys honest and commendable enterprise, he was Frobisher was not unknown to the Queen and the Court. He was evidently regarded as a man of action who might be trusted on difficult enterprises. As early as 1574, the Queen wrote to the Muscovy Company, reminding them that it was twenty years since they had sent an expedition to search for Cathay. The bearer of that letter was Martin Frobisher. |