PSYCHE

is covered with forests. The principal crops raised are rye, oats, barley, and pulse. Hemp and flax are cultivated. The only manufacture of any importance is leather, and the inhabitants excel greatly in dressing skins. The population is chiefly of Russian origin, but there are a few of other races, including some Mohammedans. In 1854 the government contained 30 village schools, attended by 806 pupils.PSKOV, the capital, is situated on the left bank of the Velikaia, about 5 m. from its mouth in Lake Pskov, and 165 m. S. S. W. from St. Petersburg; pop. 10,842. It is enclosed by a wall 5 m. in circuit, and the Kremlin, or citadel, stands in the centre. There are a cathedral and about 30 other churches, several of which are in a ruinous condition, 3 convents, several schools, and some charitable institutions. Pskov is very conspicuous in the early history of Russia. It has been often besieged; in 1614 Gustavus Adolphus was obliged to retire from before its walls.

PSYCHE (Gr. Vuxn, breath, or the soul), a character of Greek romance, generally accepted as a personification of the human soul. Her story is thus told by Apuleius. A certain king had 3 daughters, of whom the youngest, named Psyche, was a marvel of beauty, and altars were consecrated to her that properly belonged to Venus. The anger of that goddess was excited, and she commanded her son Cupid to inspire Psyche with a passion for some frightful monster; but he himself fell in love with her, and bore her away to a delightful place, where she was visited every night by the young god, who left her at dawn. Her sisters persuaded her that he who came to her every night, and whom she had never seen, must be some loathsome creature, and urged her to destroy him while he slept; but when she brought a lamp and beheld his beauty, her joy deprived her of the power of motion, and while she stood a drop of hot oil falling from her lamp upon his shoulder awoke him. With a few words of reproach he fled. Psyche now endeavored to destroy herself, but nothing in nature would injure her. At length, through the contrivance of Venus, she fell under the influence of a sleep brought especially from the infernal world. From this sleep she was not aroused until Cupid came and touched her with the point of one of his arrows, when she arose, and, being now sufficiently purified through suffering, was united to her beloved by Jove himself.

PSYCHOLOGY. See PHILOSOPHY. PTARMIGAN, the popular name of the gallinaceous birds of the grouse family embraced in the genus lagopus (Briss.), which differ from the ordinary grouse in having the legs feathered to the claws, giving somewhat the appearance of a hare's foot (whence the generic name, Gr. Xayws, a hare, and wous, foot), in the truncated tail about as long as the wings and of 16 to 18 feathers, in most of the species becoming white in winter, and in the nasal groove

being densely clothed with feathers; the family characters have been given under Grouse. There are 6 or 8 species described, inhabiting the northern and snow-covered regions of both hemispheres, being one of the few genera characteristic of the arctic fauna; they are as much at home in snow as are the web-footed birds in water, and their plumed feet enable them to run over its surface without sinking in. They live in families during most of the year, and are monogamous; the females incubate, but the males assist in rearing and feeding the young; the males have a loud harsh cry, and the females cackle like a hen. They are rapid fliers and without a whirring noise, and swift runners; they feed upon berries, buds, mosses and lichens, and even insects; their flesh is good, and their pursuit affords an exciting sport; they are very shy, but when started are easily shot on account of their regular flight. The summer plumage is varied with brown, black, and gray, most of the wing remaining white; in the males the mottling is finer and the colors brighter. It is very difficult to ascertain the exact number of species, from the rarity of specimens in summer plumage, and the absence of accurate determination of sex.-There are 3 well ascertained species in America. The white ptarmigan or willow grouse (L. albus, Aud.) is about 15 inches long and 24 inches in alar extent; the bill is black, very stout and convex, and broad at tip; the general plumage in suminer is rufous or orange chestnut on the head and neck; feathers of back black, closely barred with yellowish brown and chestnut; most of wings and lower parts white; tail brownish black; in winter white, with black tail; no black stripe through the eye. It occurs in the northern parts of America, and is common in eastern Labrador, Newfoundland, and the Hudson's bay territory, and in rare instances in the northern United States; it is found in open rocky grounds and among dwarf willows and birches. In winter they scratch in the snow down to the mosses and lichens on which they feed, collecting often in considerable flocks; in winter the flesh is dry, but is tender and with an agreeable aromatic flavor in summer. They breed in Labrador about the beginning of June, placing the nest under the creeping branches of low firs; the eggs are from 6 to 14, of a fawn color or rufous ground with irregular spots of reddish brown; only one brood is raised in a season. The rock ptarmigan (L. rupestris, Leach) is 14 inches long; the bill is slender, rather compressed at tip; in summer the feathers of the back are black banded with yellowish brown and tipped with white; in winter white, with the tail black (the 4 middle feathers white), and the male with a black bar from the bill through the eyes. It occurs in arctic America, rarely coming further south than lat. 63° N. in the interior, but to 58° on Hudson's bay, and in the Rocky mountains, according to Richardson, to 55°; the same species is said to occur in the northern parts of the eastern hemisphere;

the eggs are pale reddish brown, with darker spots, and are 18 by 1 inches. The whitetailed ptarmigan (L. leucurus, Swains.) has a slender bill, the plumage in summer blackish brown barred with brownish yellow, and in winter entirely white; it is 13 inches long and 21 in alar extent; it is found in the N. W. portions of America, and to the south along the Rocky mountains to lat 39°.-The common European ptarmigan (L. mutus, Leach) is about 15 inches long; the bill is black, short, and robust; the summer plumage is ashy brown mottled with darker spots and barred with orange yellow and dark brown on the sides of the neck and back, and the tail, with the exception of the 2 middle feathers, grayish white with a narrow terminal white band. It is fond of lofty and northern regions, going as far as Greenland and coming down to the highlands of Scotland; when pursued, like the other species, it is apt to dive under the soft snow; it sometimes does this for protection from the cold, and in damp weather is sometimes imprisoned and destroyed under the frozen surface of the snow; the ruffed grouse has the same habit. A species much resembling this, if not identical with it, occurs in America, in the neighborhood of Baffin's bay, and has been described by Audubon as L. Americanus.-The Scotch ptarmigan or moorcock (L. Scoticus, Steph.) seems peculiar to Great Britain, and is abundant in the hilly districts of Scotland; the general color is chestnut brown, with black spots on the back and undulating black lines below; the winter plumage is the same. It is much esteemed as game, being to the fowler what the fox is to the hunter or the salmon to the angler; where not much pursued it is not very shy, but its plumage is so like the surrounding dark moss and heaths, that it is almost impossible to discover it without the aid of a pointer; it feeds upon heath tops and mountain berries.

PTERICHTHYS, a remarkable fossil fish. See GANOIDS.

PTERODACTYL (pterodactylus, Cuv.; Gr. TTерOV, wing, and dakruλos, finger), a remarkable genus of fossil flying reptiles, possessing essentially the characters of saurians, with some only apparent relations to bats and birds. They have been divided into 3 genera according to the number of joints in the wing-bearing finger and the disposition of the teeth; all are characteristic of the secondary epoch, being found principally in the lithographic schists of Solenhofen, and in the oolite, lias, wealden, and chalk of Europe. In the genus pterodactylus the jaws had teeth even to the extremity; the skull was elongated, with the intermaxillaries large; nasal opening wide and near the middle of the muzzle, partly closed in front by a small bone as in the monitors, and with a surrounding circle of small bones and a small opening into the orbit as in birds; the lower jaw, as in crocodiles, had no coronary process, and was articulated behind the eyes; the teeth, 5 to 17 on each side, were conical, slightly arched, com

pressed, inserted in separate cavities, and hollowed at the base; neck of 7 stout vertebræ; dorsals 13 to 15, and, with the ribs, weak; lumbar 2 or 3, sacral 6, anchylosed together, and caudal 10 to 15; the shoulder blade and coracoid bone separate and weak; scapular arch and pelvis as in lizards, except that the last seems to have had marsupial bones, according to Pictet; the long bones hollow and with air openings, as in birds; humerus short and stout, and forearm twice as long; hind limbs slender, with 5 moderate toes of the same length; 5 or 6 bones in the wrist, 5 metacarpals, 5 fingers, with respectively 1, 2, 3, 4, and 4 joints; the first 4 short and with hooked nails, the external very long, equal to the neck and body, and nailless; the gape of mouth very large. This singular animal was referred to the swimming birds by Blumenbach, and to the bats by Sömmering, and was determined to be a reptile by Cuvier. The nearly equal and conical teeth, very small cranial cavity, different number of joints in the fingers, and reptilian shape of sternum and scapula, show that it was not a bat-like mammal; the very existence of teeth, the small number of the vertebræ in the neck, the thinness of the ribs and tail and the absence of recurrent processes in the latter, the form of the sternum and number of the fingers, prove that it was not a bird. These characters place it among reptiles, but it had also a modification of the anterior extremities in the form of wings, which are not possessed by any existing or any other fossil members of the class, the so called wings of the dragon being merely membranous expansions from the sides of the body supported by the ribs. The form of the wings is also remarkable and unique; in birds the fingers are very little separated, and serve as a basis for the plumes; in bats the flying membrane is stretched upon the 4 elongated fingers, the thumb remaining rudimentary; but in the pterodactyl the external finger alone is greatly developed and supports the flying membrane, the other 4 having the usual short dimensions; the membrane extended probably from the long finger along the sides of the body to the hind limbs and beyond, including the tail. About 20 species are described, varying in alar extent from a few inches to 4 or 5 yards; they probably flew and crept about in the manner of bats; the form of the teeth and strength of the jaws indicate a carnivorous animal, but of feeble powers; the smaller species must have been insectivorous, and the largest may have seized fish or small reptiles of their own or other genera. The great size of the eyes indicates nocturnal habits; the posterior limbs were so far developed that they could doubtless assume an erect position like birds, and perch on trees; the claws of the fore and hind feet would also enable them to climb along the rocks; the body was probably more or less scaly, as in lizards. From the weakness of the scapular arch some have doubted the power of active flight in the pterodactyl, believing that

PTOLEMAIS

the wing membranes could only support it in the air when leaping from place to place, in a little more perfect manner than in the dragons; but it must be remembered that the atmosphere of the secondary geological age contained more carbon and less oxygen than at present, and that in a dense medium, approaching more nearly the physical properties of water, even a cold-blooded reptile might rise on the wing, and fly heavily through the thicker air, with the necessary expediture of much less muscular energy than is now requisite for aërial locomotion. The most anciently known species is the P. longirostris (Oken), about the size of a woodcock, with a length of 10 inches and an alar extent of 21; the teeth were on each side. The P. crassirostris (Goldf.), with a larger head and shorter neck, was a foot long and 3 feet in alar extent, and the teeth. The P. breciostris (Cuv.) had a shorter muzzle, the head resembling more that of a goose just hatched than of a reptile; the teeth were very small,; the total length was less than 3 inches, and there were only 4 posterior toes. Other species were less than 2 inches long, while on the contrary the P. ornis (Giebel) of the wealden was 2 feet in length; in the chalk of Maidstone, England, Mr. Bowerbank detected bones of a species which he named P. giganteus, 6 to 7 feet in alar extent; the P. Cuvieri (Bowerb.) is believed to have spread 163 feet. The genus ramphorhynchus (H. de Meyer) or ornithocephalus (Sömm.) was separated for a few species of the jurassic age, having the anterior portion of the jaws without teeth, and probably with a horny beak; the scapula and coracoid were consolidated together, and the tail long and stiff, with about 30 vertebra; there were 4 joints in the wing finger; the largest species was about 18 inches long. In the genus ornithopterus (H. de Meyer) there were only 2 joints in the wing finger. It will be seen from the above description that the pterodactyl was most unlike any thing now living, and presented a union of strange and seemingly incompatible characters, paralleled only in the uncouth and impossible creations of Chinese imagination.

PTOLEMAIS. See ACRE, St. Jean d'. PTOLEMY I. (PTOLEMÆUS), surnamed SOTER, son of Lagus, founder of the Græco-Egyptian dynasty, born near the court of Philip of Macedon in 367 B. O., died in Alexandria in 283. He was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, and rendered important services to that conqueror in his Asiatic campaigns. In the division of the empire which followed Alexander's death, in 323, he became ruler of Egypt, which remained nominally a satrapy of Macedon under the regency of Perdiccas. Hastening to Alexandria, he put to death Cleomenes, Alexander's satrap, on the pretext of his being a partisan of Perdiccas. This gave him possession of a large sum of money which Cleomenes had extorted from the Egyptians, and with this treasure he equipped an army and took Cyrene. To oppose the ambitious schemes

of Perdiccas, he leagued in 321 with Antigonus, Antipater, and Craterus. Perdiccas invaded Egypt, but penetrated no further than the Nile, where Ptolemy had so strongly fortified himself that he foiled Perdiccas in every attempt to cross. On hearing of the assassination of his rival by his mutinous soldiers, he sent wine and provisions to the invading army, and so won them by his courtesy that they unanimously offered him the regency, but he declined it. The next year he seized upon Phoenicia and Cole-Syria. It was probably during this expedition that he took possession of Jerusalem without opposition by attacking it on the sabbath day. To resist Antigonus, who had now become the most powerful of Alexander's successors, he formed a coalition in 316 with Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus; and after a vehement struggle of 4 years, during which he lost Phoenicia, a hollow peace was concluded (311). The next year Ptolemy renewed hostilities under the pretext that Antigonus had violated the treaty by keeping his garrisons in the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, and in the course of the long war which followed he lost Cyprus by his defeat in the memorable sea fight near Salamis in 306. Antigonus, elated by this great victory, assumed the title of king, and Ptolemy followed his example. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus and conqueror of Salamis, now invaded Egypt, but, baffled at the banks of the Nile, turned his arms against Rhodes, which had refused to join in the attack. Ptolemy however enabled it to hold out by furnishing repeated supplies of troops and provisions, and out of gratitude for their preservation the Rhodians paid him divine honors, saluting him with the title of saviour (Soter). The death of Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus in 301 terminated the war, and added Syria and Palestine to Ptolemy's dominions; and in 295 Cyprus was again and finally brought under Egyptian sway. The rest of his reign was peaceful. He took wise and vigorous measures to promote the happiness of his Egyptian subjects, revived their ancient religious and political constitution, restored to the priestly caste some of its former privileges, and fixed his capital at Memphis. To the Jews also and the Greeks the same toleration was shown, and great numbers of them were attracted to Alexandria by Ptolemy's enlightened and peaceful policy. He created literary institutions which reached their greatest splendor under his successor, Philadelphus. The most celebrated of these were a library and a museum, a kind of university whose professors and teachers were supported at the public expense. Ptolemy cultivated letters as well as patronized them, and wrote a history of the wars of Alexander, which was praised. He wished his youngest son Philadelphus, the offspring of his favorite wife Berenice, to succeed him, to the exclusion of his elder son by his former wife Eurydice. This exciting violent opposition at court, he consummated his purpose by

a voluntary abdication in favor of Philadelphus in 285. He continued however to exercise sovereignty until his death.

PTOLEMY II., surnamed PHILADELPHUS (lover of his brother), king of Egypt, youngest son of the preceding by Berenice, born in the island of Cos in 309 B. C., died in Alexandria in 247. His father caused his accession in 285 to be celebrated with great pomp. He had grown up in a period of public peace and tranquillity, had been carefully educated in elegant learning, and came to the throne thoroughly imbued with his father's enlightened policy. He cleared upper Egypt of robbers, and penetrated Ethiopia on scientific explorations and ostrich and elephant hunts, establishing traffic with the barbarous tribes. Southern Africa also he opened to the enterprise of the Alexandrian merchants. To command the Red sea he found ed Arsinoë (near Suez), and connected it with Alexandria by restoring and completing the canal begun by Necho. Lower down he constructed the ports of Myos-Hormos and Berenice, and connected the latter with Coptos on the Nile by an artificial road 258 miles long across the desert. This road continued for ages the route of merchandise from the east and south to Alexandria. Philadelphus was most celebrated as a munificent patron of learning. Under his care the institutions his father had founded attained the highest prosperity. (See ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY.) The museum included botanical and zoological gardens, and the study of natural history was prosecuted with great ardor and success. This study he further fostered by establishing menageries of wild and rare animals. He sent agents through Greece for the collection of works of art, and made large additions to the literary treasures of the library. He spent vast sums of money on public works, built the celebrated lighthouse on the island of Pharos, and erected a magnificent royal mausoleum to which he removed the remains of Alexander from their resting place at Memphis. The most distinguished poets, philosophers, mathematicians, and astronomers of that time adorned his capital. For the use of the Alexandrian Jews, the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures is said to have been made by his command. The quiet of his reign was early disturbed by the revolt of his half brother Magas, viceroy of Cyrene, who succeeded in maintaining his independence; and by a contest for the possession of Phoenicia and Cole-Syria, which was kept up at intervals to near the close of his life, when these provinces at last remained in his possession. He took part at different times in the affairs of Greece, maintaining an unfriendly attitude toward Macedon, and established relations of amity with the rising republic of Rome. He founded a gymnasium at Athens, and planted numerous colonies in various parts of his foreign dominions, which comprised Phoenicia, Cole-Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, the Cyclades, and portions of Ethiopia,

Arabia, and Libya. The effeminacy of his court increasing with the wealth of the country, and being himself of delicate constitution, he came at length to lead the indolent life of a refined voluptuary. Military discipline was neglected, though the number of his men and ships was immense. Repudiating his first wife, he married his sister Arsinoe, which the Egyptian law allowed, but she brought him no children. Another stain on his memory is the execution of two of his brothers, in derision for which his surname is said by some to have been bestowed upon him.

PTOLEMY III., surnamed EUERGEtes, eldest son and successor of the preceding, by Arsinoë, daughter of Lysimachus, died in 222 B. C. On coming to the throne he found in the public treasury an immense amount of money, and at his command a vast army and navy. His warlike ardor was roused by the ill treatment and subsequent murder of his sister Berenice, wife of Antiochus Theos, king of Syria. With a large army he ravaged Syria and the eastern provinces, advancing as far as Susa, and, without establishing his authority in any new possessions, brought back immense booty in gold and silver, among which were the Egyptian idols which Cambyses had carried off to Persia. This conduct the Egyptians esteemed so meritorious that they called him Euergetes (benefactor). In right of his wife Berenice, daughter of Magas, Cyrene was united to his hereditary dominions, and he made large acquisitions of territory in Arabia and Abyssinia. He inherited the religious liberality and love of learning of his progenitors, and was like his father a proficient in letters. He enlarged the museum, entertained men of learning at his court, and fostered trade, so that under him Alexandria continued her career of unexampled prosperity. The wealth of the empire is shown by the magnificent presents he bestowed upon the Rhodians when their city was destroyed by an earthquake toward the close of his reign. It is commonly reported that he was murdered by his son and successor Ptolemy Philopator, though Polybius asserts that he died a natural death.

PTOLEMY, CLAUDIUS, an Egyptian mathematician, astronomer, and geographer, said to have been born in Pelusium, flourished at Alexandria in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus. Scarcely any particulars of his life are known. He handed down to posterity, in the Meyaan Euvragis, or "Great Construction" (of the heavens), the only record we have of the astronomical observations and theories of the ancients who dwelt around the Mediterranean. The most important part of this work is a catalogue of stars, the oldest extant, which is doubtless that constructed by Hipparchus, reduced by Ptolemy to the first year of the reign of Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138). The work treats of the relations of the earth and heavens; the effect of position upon the earth; the theory of the sun and moon, without which that of the stars can

PUBERTY

not be undertaken; the sphere of the fixed stars, and the determination of the planetary orbits. Ptolemy adopted the system which places the earth in the centre of the universe. This theory, known by his name, was universally received till the time of Copernicus. During all that interval, the history of astronomy presents scarcely any thing more than comments on his writings. But for the Arabians the Syntaxis would doubtless have perished. It was translated by them, and handed down under the title of Almagest, in the reign of the caliph Almamoun (about 827), son of Haroun al Rashid. Ptolemy left a very copious account of the manner in which Hipparchus established the main parts of his theories, and in most of the branches of the subject gave additional exactness to what that astronomer had done. He computed, notwithstanding the fundamental errors and the inaccuracies of his system, the eclipses of the next 6 centuries; determined the planetary orbits; and discovered the moon's second inequality or evection. As a geometer he has been ranked as certainly the fourth among the ancients, after Euclid, Apollonius, and Archimedes. In physics he made an important advance. He experimented with a ray of light, causing it to pass through media of unequal density, and thus discovered refraction, and has accordingly been regarded as the founder of an important branch of the science of optics. He first recognized the alteration of the apparent position of a heavenly body which is due to this cause. Ptolemy wrote a universal geography, which Humboldt describes as a "colossal" production; and the same authority speaks of his geographical information as surpassing that of Strabo. He was the first to use the terms latitude and longitude, by which he laid down the position of each country and town. He proved the earth to be a globe, and calculated its inhabited parts to extend from the meridian of Thinæ, long. 119° 30′ E. of Alexandria, to the meridian of the Islands of the Blessed, 60° 30′ W.; and from the parallel of Meroë, about lat. 16° 30' N., to that of Thule (Iceland or the Shetland islands), 63° N. After him no one attempted for many centuries to reform geography except in the improvement of details, and his great work continued to be the standard text book till the 16th century. He was distinguished also as a musician, and wrote treatises on music, mechanics, chronology, and astrology.

PUBERTY, the period of youth characterized by the acquirement of functional power in the reproductive apparatus of both sexes; its activity, however, cannot be called into exercise until the growth of the individual is completed, on penalty of premature and permanent exhaustion of the vital powers, and the develop ment of any latent disposition to disease. That puberty is not the period of completed growth is shown by the increase in stature after its attainment, the subsequent ossification of the vertebral spinous and transverse processes, and

the consolidation of the pelvic, sacral, and coccygeal vertebræ, sternal pieces, and epiphyses of the ribs, scapula, clavicle, and bones of the extremities. In the human male puberty is established between the 14th and 16th years; beside the increased sexual and muscular development, the beard makes its appearance, the larynx enlarges, giving a lower, harsher, and stronger tone to the voice, and the thoughts, desires, and actions have a more manly character. In the female this period is arrived at between the 13th and 16th years in temperate climates, and somewhat earlier in the tropics and in the midst of the luxury and excitements of city life; there is a similar development in the reproductive system, usually coincident with the appearance of the catamenia and mammary enlargement, and a deposition of fat over the whole surface of the body, causing plumpness and roundness. In the male there is at this time no special tendency to disease, nor in the healthy female; but, as a consequence of the defective physical training of most female youth, disorders of the menstrual function are very apt to occur, with numerous functional, nervous, and even organic complications; in persons of naturally weak constitutions, of both sexes, and in those enfeebled by premature exercise of the mental, physical, or generative powers, the tuberculous diathesis is frequently developed in the lungs soon after puberty.

PUBLICOLA, PUBLIUS VALERIUS, a Roman general and lawgiver, who flourished at the beginning of the republic. His original name was Publius Valerius. According to the common story, he was present when Lucretia stabbed herself, and bore a prominent part in the expulsion of the Tarquins, and after the compulsory resignation of Collatinus was elected consul in his place. In the war between the Tarquins and Veientes and the Romans, he gained a victory over the former in 509 B. C. Returning to Rome, he began building a house on the Velian hill overlooking the forum, which excited fear in the people that he was seeking to raise himself to royal power. When Valerius discovered the existence of these suspicions, he ordered the building to be demolished, and his lictors when they appeared before the people to lower their fasces; whence he received the surname of Publicola or Poplicola, "the people's friend." He now brought forward laws for the establishment of the republic, one of which declared that whoever attempted to make himself king might be killed by any one; another that plebeians condemned by a magistrate should have the right of appeal to the people. He was afterward thrice elected consul; and the expedition of Porsena is placed during his time of office. In 504 he and his colleague, T. Lucretius Tricipitinus, routed the Sabines and returned to Rome in triumph. The annalists usually placed his death in the next year, although Niebuhr thinks that in the original legend he perished at the battle of the lake Regillus in 498 or 496 B. C.