ther, the agent of Massachusetts in England, he was appointed captain-general and governorin-chief of the province, and arrived in Boston May 14, 1692. In 1694 he was summoned to England to answer complaints which had been brought against him; but while there, and when it seemed that the difficulties would be settled in his favor, he suddenly died. He was a lover of his country, and aimed to discharge the duties of his office justly; but the violence of his temper led him constantly to commit acts which weakened his influence. He was, says Bancroft, "of a dull intellect, headstrong, and with a reason so feeble, that in politics he knew nothing of general principles, in religion was the victim to superstition." He is strongly eulogized by Cotton Mather, with whom he cooperated in the witchcraft delusion. (See "Life of Sir William Phips," by Francis Bowen, in Sparks's " American Biography," vol. vii.)

PHLEBITIS (Gr. pλey, pλeßos, a vein), inflammation of the veins. Phlebitis is one of the numerous diseases which modern observation has added to the domain of medicine. First noticed by John Hunter in 1784, numerous isolated cases were soon after published, and in the early part of the 19th century the disease was fully illustrated by the labors of the French pathologists. Phlebitis is of two kinds, adhesive and suppurative. Adhesive phlebitis is a local disease, occasioned generally by some mechanical injury done to the coats of a vein, or by some source of local irritation in its neighborhood. It is marked by a dull pain in the part, by swelling, hardness, and tenderness of the affected vein, and, when this is a main venous trunk, by oedema of the parts whose blood is returned by it; phlegmasia dolens is thus properly a phlebitis. The effect of adhesive phlebitis is to determine the formation of fibrinous clots which adhere more or less strongly to the walls of the vein, blocking up its caliber. After a time the adhesions become loosened, the clots are absorbed, and the circulation through the vein is restored. The disease, except where the blocking up of a main trunk may cause embarrassment to the circulation, is not a serious one; rest and perhaps the application of a few leeches along the course of the affected vein are all that is necessary for its cure. In suppurative phlebitis the local symptoms are often so little marked as to attract no attention, while the general symptoms are of the gravest character. The latter ordinarily commence by a marked chill, and this is repeated at irregular intervals, in some cases several times a day, throughout the disease. The chills are followed by heat of skin and great frequency of pulse, and these terminate generally in a profuse sweat. The vital powers are commonly early depressed, and the patient complains of great weakness. The appetite is totally lost, the tongue is red and dry, sometimes sordes of the teeth and mouth are present, and sometimes there is copious and offensive diar

rhea. In the course of the disease abscesses may make their appearance at different points in the subcutaneous cellular tissue, or one or more of the joints may become distended with pus. On examination after death pus is often found in the veins, with numerous (multiple) abscesses in the parenchyma of the lungs or liver. The disease is almost necessarily fatal, and medicine can do little to retard its progress; to support the system of the patient by appropriate food, by quinine and stimulants, seems the principal indication.

PHLEBOTOMY. See BLOODLETTING. PHLEGMASIA DOLENS, or PHLEGMASIA ALBA DOLENS, an oedematous swelling of one or both of the lower extremities, commonly called milk leg, attended with pain, and occurring soon after childbirth. The disease was first noticed at the commencement of the 17th century. It was for a long time attributed to deposits of milk in the affected leg, and afterward to obstruction of the lymphatics, &c. In 1823 Dr. Davis of London and Dr. Bouillaud of Paris both published post-mortem examinations of cases of phlegmasia dolens, in which the femoral vein in the affected extremity was found inflamed and obstructed by fibrinous deposits. A few years later Dr. Robert Lee traced the inflammation from the femoral to the uterine veins. It would seem, then, well established that the disease is simply an adhesive phlebitis, having its origin generally in the uterine veins. The attack comes on commonly within 2 or 3 weeks after delivery, with pain in the lower part of the pelvis, extending rapidly below Poupart's ligament in the course of the femoral vein, or perhaps commencing in the calf of the leg. The pain, which is commonly attributed to rheumatism, is soon followed by swelling. This may be moderate in amount and confined to the leg, or it may be enormous and involve the whole extremity. When the swelling is great, the limb is white, hard, hot, and does not pit on pressure. The inflamed vein can be commonly traced below the groin as a hard, painful cord. There is fever, loss of appetite, and sleeplessness. The disease is ordinarily without danger, the swelling gradually subsiding after a time, though more or less cedema is sometimes permanently left. Rest, the application of a few leeches along the course of the inflamed vein, and an unirritating diet are all that is necessary for the cure of the disease.

PHLIASIA, a division of the Peloponnesus, bounded N. by Sicyonia, E. by Cleone, S. by Argolis, and W. by Arcadia. It consists of a small valley, 900 feet above the sea level, and is enclosed by mountains. The river Asopus flows through the middle of the plain. In antiquity this territory was renowned for its wine. The only place of importance was the city of Phlius, which was a Doric state, and usually governed by an aristocracy, although once subject to the tyrant Leon, a contemporary of Pythagoras. It sent 200 soldiers to Thermop

PHLOGISTON

yle and 1,000 to Platea, and during the Peloponnesian war was the faithful ally of Sparta. Afterward a division arose in the city, and the friends of the Lacedæmonians were banished; but in 393 B. C. the Phliasians received from Iphicrates so severe a defeat that they were forced to admit a Lacedæmonian garrison for their defence, which however did not restore the exiles. In 380 and 379 it sustained from Agesilaus, at the head of a Spartan army, a siege of one year and 8 months. Having surrendered, it remained faithful to Sparta during the Theban war, was governed by tyrants after the death of Alexander, and subsequently joined the Achæan league. Phlius was the birthplace of Pratinas, the inventor of the satyric drama. In the present kingdom of Greece Phliasia forms part of the nomarchy of Achaia and Elis. PHLOGISTON. See CHEMISTRY, vol. v. p.

34.

PHOCION, an Athenian general, born about 402 B. C., put to death in 317. The son of a pestle maker, he studied under Plato and Xenocrates, and first distinguished himself in the naval victory gained at Naxos in 376 by the Athenians under Chabrias over the Lacedæmonians, but for many years after was not prominent in public life. Sent into Euboea about 350 at the head of a small force to assist Plutarch, tyrant of Eretria, he was betrayed by the latter, and for a time was exposed to imminent danger; but he finally gained a complete victory at Tamynæ over the party of Philip. In 340 he was despatched with a fleet to the relief of Byzantium, then closely besieged by the Macedonians, and was enabled to force Philip to retire from the Chersonesus. Although so successful in war, Phocion was always an advocate of the temporizing policy of the peace party, and thus stood in direct opposition to Demosthenes. When Thebes, on the reported death of Alexander, declared itself independent of Macedon, the Athenians were prevented by his influence from giving them assistance, and occupying the pass of Thermopyla. A little later he advised compliance with the demand of Alexander that the 10 leaders of the anti-Macedonian party should be given up, which proposition was indignantly rejected; but he nevertheless headed the second embassy, by the agency of which the demand was waived. After the death of Alexander, Phocion attempted to discourage the effort of the Greeks to free themselves from the Macedonian yoke. When the effort proved unsuccessful, he was one of the envoys sent to Antipater, and only succeeded in concluding a treaty on the hard conditions that the Athenians should pay a sum equal to the whole cost of the war, should surrender the anti-Macedonian orators, should receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia, and should abandon their democratic constitution, and disfranchise their poorer citizens. He was now at the head of the Macedonian party in Athens, and while in that position was suspected of complicity with Nicanor, the general of Cassander, commander of the MaVOL. XIII.-18

cedonian garrison, and subsequently with Alexander, son of Polysperchon, who was besieging Nicanor. On the return of the Athenian exiles, and the restoration of the democratic government, he was compelled to flee to Polysperchon in Phocis, by whom he was sent back to Athens for trial. With 4 others he was condemned to drink the hemlock. He charged his son not to hold evil memory of the Athenians, and it is said was called upon to pay for his own execution, inasmuch as the poison having been exhausted the gaoler refused to procure any more without compensation; whereupon Phocion, borrowing 12 drachmæ, remarked that it was very hard a man could not even die gratis at Athens. Shortly after Cassander obtained possession of the city, the oligarchical party regained power, and celebrated Phocion's funeral obsequies at the public expense, erected a statue in his honor, and punished his accusers. Phocion was a man of great courage, a good general, and above all free from the least suspicion of personal corruption. By his reputation among the Athenians for this last quality he acquired in great measure his influence with the people, so that he was elected the unparelleled number of 45 times to the office of general of the city, without having solicited the position or having been present at the choice. Although not a professed orator, his brief and powerful speeches and his sarcastic manner exerted so great an influence, that Demosthenes, on seeing him rise, once said: "Here comes the cleaver of my harangues.' In outward manner he was severe and surly, although said to be kind-hearted. He had a contempt for the people which he never affected to hide; and once, when tumultuously applauded in a public assembly, he turned round to a friend and inquired: "What folly have I uttered, that these men applaud me?" His probity was never shaken by the tempting offers of money and favor held out by Philip, and afterward by Alexander, who entertained for him a high regard. But he did gratuitously for the Macedonians what others did for pay, and lent the influence of his undoubted patriotism to that temporizing policy which ultimately involved Athens and the other Grecian states in a common ruin.

PHOCIS, a country of central Greece, bounded N. by the Locri Epicnemidii and the Locri Opuntii, E. by Boeotia, S. by the Corinthian gulf, and W. by Doris and the Locri Ozola. At one time it also comprehended a port on the Euboean sea, called Daphnus. The principal city of Phocis was Delphi. The next in importance was Elatea, on the left bank of the Cephissus, commanding the road leading from the north of Greece to Boeotia and Attica. there were several other cities of importance, such as Cirrha, the port of Delphi; Anticyra or Anticirrha, renowned for its preparations of hellebore; and Abæ, distinguished for its ancient oracle of Apollo. The largest river is the Cephissus, which flows through the northern portion of the country, and falls into Lake Copais in Boo

Beside these,

tia. The country is exceedingly mountainous. The Parnassus range extends over the greater portion of it, the southern branch of the chain called Cirphis touching the Corinthian gulf between Cirrha and Anticyra. Below this range are several fertile valleys, of which the largest was the celebrated Crissæan plain. Between Parnassus and the Locrian mountains on the N. is the valley of the Cephissus, which embraces a few fertile though narrow plains. The chief importance of Phocis is due to the fact that the oracle of Delphi was within its boundaries. The Phocians proper, who inhabited both banks of the Cephissus, formed a confederation, which assembled at Daulis in a building called Phocicum. This confederation maintained its freedom, although frequently attacked by the Thessalians; and the latter, at the time of the invasion of Xerxes, led the Persian troops into Phocis, and destroyed 12 cities. Originally the temple of Delphi had been in their power, but they were early deprived of it by the Delphians, who held it till 450 B. C. It now came again into the hands of the Phocians, and both Lacedæmonian and Athenian forces marched into their territory, the one to attack, and the latter to defend. They held possession of the temple until the peace of Nicias (421), having been during the Peloponnesian war firm allies of the Athenians. But by the terms of that peace, the Delphians resumed their sovereignty over the temple, which remained in their hands until the sacred war. After the battle of Leuctra in 371, the Phocians came under the dominion of the Thebans, and remained in that condition until the death of Epaminondas, when they asserted their independence. For this the Thebans persuaded the amphictyons to enforce an old edict ordering the Phocians to pay a fine for having occupied a tract of land near Cirrha belonging to the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Their refusal gave rise to the sacred war, which lasted from 355 to 346 B. C., in which the Phocians maintained themselves by despoiling the temple, and were only reduced by the strategy of Philip of Macedon. A decree was hereupon issued by the amphictyons that the towns of Phocis, numbering 22, should be destroyed with the exception of Abæ, that the inhabitants should be scattered into villages, that no village should contain more than 50 dwellings, and that the inhabitants should repay to the temple the treasure they had taken, contributing each year 50 talents. The operations of the war which Philip afterward carried on against the Thebans and Athenians were principally in Phocis, and its people fought at the battle of Charonea on the side of Greek independence. Phocis and Phthiotis together now form a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece, their population amounting in 1856 to 91,944, and their capital being Lamia.

PHOEBUS. See APOLLO.

PHOENICIA (Gr. Powien, from pois, a palm tree), the name given by the Greek and Roman writers to the narrow region which

lies between the hills of Palestine and the mountains of Syria on the E. and the Mediterranean on the W. By the Phoenicians themselves their country was called Canaan. Its northern boundary in a political sense was near Aradus in lat. 34° 52' N., and its southern near Joppa in lat. 32° 2′ N., and its length about 200 m. The breadth never in any part exceeded 12 m., and was generally much less. The total area therefore was less than 2,000 sq. m. From Aradus to Tripolis the coast forms a bay into which several rivers fall having a short course from the mountains. Tripolis, now called Tarablus, stands on a promontorym. broad and extending a mile into the sea. A chain of 7 small islands running out to the N. W. protects its harbor from the prevalent winds. S. of Tripolis a low range of chalk hills borders so closely on the sea that there is no room for a road between them. Further S. they recede a little from the sea, and on a narrow strip stands Batroun, the ancient Botrys; and still further S., on a hill by the shore, stood the city called Byblus by the Greeks. A little S. of Byblus is the river Ibrim, the ancient Adonis, which was said to be annually changed into blood, and which still assumes in summer a red color derived perhaps from the ferruginous sands of the mountains from which it flows. A few miles further S. stood Berytus, now Beyroot, on the most projecting headland of the coast, with the mountain range of Lebanon in full sight across a plain of luxuriant fertility. Berytus, though not much celebrated in profane history, was one of the oldest of Phoenician towns. The plain in which it stood extends southward 10 m. to the mouth of the river Damour, the Tamyras of ancient geography, beyond which the hills again press closely on the sea for several miles. There, on the slope of a small promontory, is seen the site of Sidon, the oldest and one of the most famous of the cities of Phoenicia. The plain of Sidon is prolonged as far as Sarepta, the Zarephath of the Old Testament, 8 m. to the south. From Sarepta the plain again widens and continues as far as Tyre, with an average width of about 2 m.; near that city it widens to 5 m.; 8 m. S. of Tyre it terminates in the White promontory rising perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 300 feet. The road here, which in some places hangs over the water, was cut through the rock, it is said, by Alexander the Great. Originally it appears to have been ascended by steps, and was therefore called the Tyrian climax, or staircase. About 30 m. still further S. Acre or Acco, the Ptolemais of the Greeks, stands on the N. projection of a bay which is about 8 m. across and is terminated on the S. by the promontory of Carmel. A few miles southward is Dorce, anciently a town of considerable magnitude, next to which at no great distance the important city of Cæsarea was in later ages built by Herod the Great. At Jaffa, the ancient Joppa, 30 m. southward, the Phoenician territory terminated. The vicin

ity of the Nile affects the coast of Phoenicia even as far N. as Tyre and Sidon. The set of the currents carries regularly to the eastward the alluvial matter which the river pours into the sea, and deposits it on the coast, so that towns formerly maritime have become inland, and harbors which once received fleets of ships are now filled up. (For the climate and natural history of Phoenicia, see PALESTINE, and SYRIA.) -Though the Phoenicians appear to have dwelt on the sea coast of Syria at the earliest dawn of history, they always considered themselves as colonists and not as aborigines. Herodotus says they came from the Erythræan sea, that is, that part of the Indian ocean which washes the shores of Arabia and Persia, to the Mediterranean, "and having settled in the country which they now occupy, immediately undertook distant voyages; and, carrying cargoes both of Egyptian and Assyrian goods, visited, among other places, Argos." In the Scriptures they are always termed Canaanites, and are classed among the descendants of Ham. They were of darker complexion than the other Syrians, and the Greek writers frequently speak of them as Ethiopians. The most probable theory in regard to them is that ethnologically they were Arabs or connected with the Arabian family of mankind. Like the Arabs to this day on the shores of the Indian ocean, they were at once pirates and merchants. Kidnapping and barter were practised indifferently by the crews of their ships. Homer represents them as carrying off and selling for slaves those whom they could get into their power by force or fraud. But though Europe suffered from their piracy, it is certain that from their visits she received the rudiments of her civilization and imbibed a taste for the elegances of life. The use of alphabetical characters and also arithmetic has been clearly derived from Phoenicia by every ancient European nation. The choicest works of art known to the earlier Greeks came from Sidon; the produce of its looms furnished the most costly offering to the gods; and its trinkets adorned the persons of the Grecian women. They traded where trade was profitable, and concealed from others the course they pursued to reach the distant countries to which their traffic extended. Thus, though they had supplied tin and amber for several centuries to the Greeks, Herodotus, who had visited Tyre itself, could obtain only very vague accounts of the countries in which they were produced. The master of a Phoenician merchantman bound for the land which produced tin, perceiving himself followed by a Roman ship which had been sent to learn the way, ran his vessel on the rocks to lead the rival craft to destruction; and on his return home the government remunerated him for the loss he had patriotically incurred. The commerce of Phoenicia appears to have reached its height about the 8th century B. C. Ezekiel (chap. xxvii.) draws a vivid picture of the commercial splendor of Tyre at the end of the 7th century, at which period its trade di

275

rectly or indirectly embraced the whole known world. By means of the Red sea and the Persian gulf it communicated with India and the E. coast of Africa; on the N. its vessels found their way along the Euxine to the frozen borders of Scythia; beyond the straits of Gibraltar its ships or those of its colonies visited the British isles for tin, and perhaps penetrated even into the Baltic in search of amber; and it is probable that they had several centuries before sailed along the Atlantic coast of Africa beyond the great desert, and had discovered the Canary islands. Beside carrying on commerce on a large scale in fleets and caravans, the Phoenicians appear to have traversed the interior of Syria and Palestine as peddlers, retailing the goods which they had imported or manufactured from house to house, and purchasing at the same time the domestic products of those countries. It was on the sea, however, that the Phoenicians were eminent above all other nations. For their shipping Lebanon afforded inexhaustible supplies of timber, and from Cyprus they obtained every thing else that was necessary for fitting out a vessel. Sidon among their cities appears to have enjoyed the highest reputation for naval skill. Of the form or tonnage or rigging of their vessels nothing is known, except that they were equipped for war as well as for trade, and their discipline was so good that even in Athens, the first maritime state of Greece, Xenophon cites a Phoenician ship as the best example of order and skilful arrangement that could anywhere be found. The Phoenicians were the first to apply astronomy practically to navigation, and they had noticed the connection of the moon with the tides, with which they had become acquainted in their Atlantic voyages. Of their manufactures, the most famous was that of the purple dye, which they prepared from a shell fish found on the coast. Though a similar purple was produced at various places on the coasts of Greece, Italy, and Africa, Phoenicia, especially the city of Tyre, always maintained its preeminence in this particular. It had the advantage of an inexhaustible supply of the shell fish, a brilliant sunlight, and probably some knowledge of chemistry by which the native color of the liquor was heightened. As Tyre was celebrated for its purple, so Sidon was noted for its glass, the invention of which was attributed by the ancients to the Phoenicians. The Sidonians used the blowpipe, the lathe, and the graver, and cast mirrors of glass. They were also acquainted with the art of imitating precious stones and of coloring glass by means of metallic oxides. They excelled in the manufacture of drinking vessels of gold and silver. Hiram the Phoenician king sent to Solomon to aid in building the temple, an artist, "skilful to work in gold and in silver, in brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber, in purple, in blue, and in fine linen, and in crimson; also to grave any manner of graving." (2 Chron. ii. 13, 14.) The Pho

nicians were celebrated also for the manufacture of perfumes. Their skill in mining and metallurgy was apparently greater than that of any other ancient nation, and their mining operations in Spain were carried on upon a stupendous scale and by very scientific methods. -A chief source of the power and wealth and extensive commerce of the Phoenicians was their system of colonization. The progress of their settlements naturally divides itself into three successive eras, during the first of which they colonized the shores of the eastern Mediterranean, including the Ægean and the Euxine; during the second the central part of the coast of N. Africa; and during the third the remaining coasts of the Mediterranean westward into the Atlantic. Their settlements in the first and second of these areas have no definite chronology, and can only be traced through the clouds of mythic legends transmitted to us by the Greeks. It is probable, however, that they were expelled from the islands of the Ægæan by Minos three generations before the Trojan war, and we may infer that they then settled in Sicily. At an early period they occupied Cyprus, Crete, and Rhodes, where their presence is attested by a multitude of inscriptions. Cilicia, Lycia, Caria, and other parts of the coast of Asia Minor were colonized by them, and their settlements at Thebes and other places in Greece under Cadmus gave rise to some of the most noted legends of the Greeks. The next great step in the progress of Phoenician colonization seems to have been the settlement of promontories and islets on the coast of Sicily. Malta or Melita was one of their earliest possessions in this region. The island of Sardinia is mentioned by Diodorus as one of the places to which the Phoenicians sent colonies after they had enriched themselves by the silver of Spain. On the Spanish peninsula their first settlement was Gadira, the modern Cadiz, which they colonized about 1100 B. C., the first date in their history to which we are able to give a definite position. But the greatest and most successful of their colonies were those in N. Africa, where Ituke, by the Romans called Utica, was founded about the same time that Cadiz was settled. In the same vicinity more than two centuries later Carthage was founded by a colony from Tyre, although there is some reason to suppose a much earlier settlement of the site by a colony from Sidon. It is certain however that it was to the emigration from Tyre, about the end of the 9th century B. C., that Carthage owed its rapid rise to power and opulence. The history of these colonies is in most cases too obscure to allow of our defining the relation in which they stood to the mother country. Their connection was very slight, and was maintained rather by filial piety than by political dependence. The tutelary god of Tyre was also the chief god of Carthage, and the latter city annually sent offerings to the parent temple. When Cambyses threatened to make war on Carthage, the Phoenicians who

served in his fleet refused to engage in hostilities against the Carthaginians because they regarded them as their children. On the other hand, the colonies aided the mother country with ships and soldiers in her wars, but they seem to have been entirely independent in all other respects.-From the earliest period of which we have any knowledge the cities of Phoenicia were governed each by a king. Such was the condition of Canaan when invaded by the Israelites. Every town with its adjacent territory constituted a sovereignty. The monarchy was hereditary wherever we can trace its descent, but the sanction of the people was necessary to the succession, and to them the right of election devolved in case of a vacancy of the throne. In Tyre, and probably also in Sidon and the other principal cities, a powerful aristocracy existed along with the monarchy, though we have no precise knowledge on what the distinction of nobility was founded. The chief nobles seem to have held to some extent the functions of a senate. At Tyre, when the throne was vacant, the place of the sovereign was supplied by elective magistrates called soffets or judges. A large part of the population of Phoenicia was composed of slaves, who were brought from all parts of the ancient world, and whose numbers were such in Tyre that on one occasion they rose in insurrection and expelled the free population. The cities of Phoenicia were never united under a single monarch, but generally the superior power of some city, at first Sidon and afterward Tyre, enabled it to exercise that controlling power over the others which the Greeks termed hegemony. The three principal cities, Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus, had a place of joint meeting, the town of Tripolis, where measures of the highest importance were decided by a representative assembly, of whose exact nature little is known. The chief defence of the Phænicians was their naval power, and in later ages, when the rise of the great monarchies on the Tigris and Euphrates threatened their safety, their reliance was on mercenary troops whom their wealth easily procured, chiefly from Africa. The narrow extent and limited population of their own land made it impossible to raise native armies able to cope with the Assyrians and Babylonians, or later with the Persians and Macedonians.-Of the religion of Phoenicia we know nothing except from incidental notices in the Greek and Latin writers, and in the Hebrew Scriptures. From them we learn that polytheism prevailed among the people, and that the chief deities were Baal and Ashtoreth, who are supposed to represent the sun and moon; a deity whom the Greeks called Cronos (Saturn), but whose Phoenician title is not certainly known; Moloch or Melkarth, the especial god of Tyre. Saturn and Moloch were worshipped with bloody sacrifices, in which large numbers of infants were sometimes burned alive. When great dangers from war or other evils menaced the state, the supposed anger of