LITERATURE: THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1. Spanheim, F. Le soldat suedois ou hist. veritable de ce qui s'est passé depuis l'avenue du Roy de Seude en Allemagne jusque à sa mort. Rouen, 1633. 2. Schiller, Fr. Geschichte d. dreyssigjähr. Kriegs. 2 vols. Leipz., 1792. Many eds. and transls. The poet's historical "productions are not, of course, the outcome of a prolonged or exhaustive course of special studies [though they represent the result of much original research]; but they rank high among German historical writings by virtue of their great merits of style, the warm human interest the writer has breathed into them, and the broad philosophic ideas that form their life and substance." —J. T. Bealby, in Chambers's Encyc., new ed., 1893, ix, 208. 3. Barthold, F. W. Geschichte des grossen deutschen Kriegs vom Tode Gustav Adolf m. bes. Rücksicht auf Frankreich. 2 vols. Stuttg., 1842–43. 4. Sölte, J. M. Der Religionskrieg in Deutschland. 3 vols. Hamb., 1850. 5. Villermont, A. Ch. H. de. Tilly ou la guerre de 30 ans de 1618 à 1632. 2 vols. Tournai, 1860. 6. Lossen. Donauwörth und Herz Maximilian, Münch., 1866. 7. Reuss, R. La destruction du protestantisme en Bohème. Episode de la guerre de 30 ans. Strassb., 1868. 8. Trench, R. C. Gustavus Adolphus and other lectures on the Thirty Years' War. N. Y., 1872. 9. Gardiner, S. R. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-48. N. Y., 1874. 10. Stieve, F. Der Ursprung d. 30 jähr. Krieges, 1607-19. Der Kampf um Donauwörth. Münch., 1875. 11. Ditfurth, F. W. von. Die historisch-polit. Volkslieder d. 30 jähr. Krieges. Heidelb., 1882. 12. Brockhaus, H. Der Kurfürstentag zu Nürnb., 1640. Leipz., 1883. 13. Gindely, A. History of the Thirty Years' War. Transl. by Andrew Ten Brook. 2 vols. N. Y., 1884. The author planned and published three vols. of a larger work on too extensive a scale ever to be finished. 14. Irmer, G. Die Verhandlungen Schwedens und s. Verbundeten mit Wallenstein und d. Kaiser 1631-34. 2 vols. Leipz., 1888. 15. Lammert, G. Geschichte d. Seuchen, Hungers und Kriegsnoth zur Zeit d. 30 jähr. Krieges. Wiesb., 1890. 16. Lorentzen, Th. Die Schwedische Armee im 30 jähr. Kriege und ihre Abdankung. Leipz., 1894. See also Pütter, Geist des Westfälischen Friedens, Gött., 1795; K. F. Hauser, Deutschland nach dem 30 jähr. Kriege, Leipz., 1862; Koch, Gesch. des deutschen Reichs unter Ferdinand III, Vienna, 1865. 2 CHAPTER VI. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. FOUR WARS. ALTHOUGH generally spoken of as one, the Thirty Years' War was in reality four wars so connected as to constitute a unity. It was so related to the religious conditions of the times as to spring directly out of them and to have seriously af- IN FACT fected their future, and yet there was such a multitude of other interests involved as to render impossible the understanding of the war if they are left entirely out of account. The best comprehension of the whole matter may be had by continually keeping in mind the changing causes, personalities, interests, localities, and issues until in utter exhaustion all parties were glad to arrange a peace. POLITICAL Toward the close of the sixteenth century the results of Jesuitical zeal began to be felt among the Protestants. The attempts at the conversion of Protestant princes to Rome finally succeeded in the case of Jacob, Margrave of Baden, a victory which Pope Sixtus V celebrated in Rome by a procession which he accompanied barefooted. Archduke Ferdinand, trained by the Jesuits, and full of zeal for the restoration of Roman Catholicism, had pledged himself in the most solemn manner to reintroduce the reign of the pope at all hazards in his own domains. In Steiermark, Kärnthen, and Krain he drove out numerous Protestants, burned their Bibles, destroyed their churches and schools, and banished all who refused to attend mass. In Bavaria Duke Maximilian I, also trained by the Jesuits, undertook the conversion of the Palgrave Philip Ludwig of Neuberg, by a religious colloquy at Regensburg (1601). It was conducted by the Jesuits Gretser and Tanner on the Roman Catholic, and by Heilbrunner and Hunnius on the Protestant side. The Jesuits were being beaten, and Maximilian, in order to save the day, pretended that he would not allow the colloquy to proceed because the Protestants had maligned the pope. The only result, therefore, was an increase of bitterness between the two parties. The imperial city of Donauwörth, in Bavaria, was Lutheran, and the existence of the Roman Catholic convents was only tolerated. It was a part of the arrangement that monkish processions within THE ISSUE the city should carry their banners low. A strife between the city authorities and the abbot of the Holy Cross led the people to insult a procession of monks. The emperor immediately placed the city under the ban and charged Maximilian with the duty of its execution. In so doing Maximilian unnecessarily violated the Religious Peace, and proceeded, also, to rob the city of its evangelical services (1607). At the diet of Regensburg (1608) the emperor deputized Ferdinand to assure the Protestants of Donauwörth that the Religious Peace would be observed, but by the machinations of the Jesuits he was prevented from carrying out his orders. The Jesuits were determined to force the issue. It was openly taught that the provisions of the Religious Peace were not binding, since, being inimical to Christendom, the pope could dispense with them. THE PROTES- These Jesuitical theories and the practice of the Jesuitically trained rulers were in such accord as naturally to awaken the utmost alarm among Protestants.' As a result an assembly of Protestant princes which met at Anhausen, May 4, 1608, formed the Protestant Union. It was unfortunately opposed by Saxony, and this electorate, together with other principalities, refused cooperation. But while the union princes were comparatively few, they were of both the Lutheran and Reformed confessions, among them being Elector Frederick IV of the Palatinate, who was at the head of the union; Duke John Frederick of Würtemberg, the Frankish Margraves, and Palgrave Philip Ludwig of Neuberg. The object of the union was mutual protection against the assaults of the Roman Catholic aggressors. The Protestants were once more both united and divided. The division was to be emphasized by the strife between the Saxon electorate, on the one side, favored by the emperor, and Brandenburg and the Palatinate-Neuberg, on the other, as to the succession to the possession of Juliers-Cleves. Maximilian of Bavaria, on the other hand, united the spiritual electorates of Mayence, Trèves, and Cologne, together with the bishoprics of Würzburg, Regensburg, and Augsburg in the Catholic League, with himself at its head. The incapacity of the Emperor Rudolph II caused the estates of Austria and Hungary to commit the conduct of their affairs into the hands of his older brother, Matthias. In order to strengthen himself he granted the citizens the unhindered exercise of their 'The immediate occasion of the formation of the union and the league was the dispute concerning the points just mentioned at the diet of Regensburg, 1608. AUSTRIA, religious preference and made other concessions to the Protestants. Rudolph was able to maintain himself in Bohemia by the issuing of the letters patent, in which he granted the Utra- FRICTION IN quists and Lutherans religious freedom and equality HUNGARYAND with the Roman Catholics, as also authorized defend- BOHEMIA. ers for their protection. The emperor was soon obliged, however, to yield even Bohemia, preserving only the imperial title. Ferdinand was made ruler of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. The Protestant Bohemians were naturally anxious as to their religious future. Events soon proved their fears well grounded. In the domains of the abbot of Braunau the Protestants were erecting two churches. One was torn down, the other closed on the plea that no evangelical church could be built within Roman Catholic spiritual territory. The defenders saw in this act a breach of the letters patent of 1609. Their appeal to the emperor resulted in their severe rebuke and the confirmation of the act of those who had forbidden the erection of the churches. The Protestants were angered, and resorted to violence; but they were as unsuccessful with Ferdinand as they had been with the emperor. THE BOHE- These events were the preliminaries which led up to the Bohemian war, the first act in the great tragedy. In 1619 the Archduke Ferdinand took the imperial throne as Ferdinand II. But even before he was crowned Bohemia and Moravia, actuated by their religious fears, chose Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate as their king. Urged by his ambition and supported by his wife and court preacher, the Calvinist Scultetus, he accepted. As head of the Protestant Union he naturally enlisted the enmity of Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League, who joined with Ferdinand, giving Tilly, his skillful Dutch commander, charge of the army. Tilly invaded Bohemia, and in the battle of Weissenberg completely overthrew the weak Frederick V. The territories of the Upper Palatinate fell to Bavaria as a reward, together with the electoral dignity. Thus the Palatinate was once more in the hands of Romanists. The violence of the victors drove many into the Roman Catholic Church. Jesuits followed the army to complete the work of conversion. In a few decades Roman Catholicism completely rewon Bohemia to itself. Ferdinand II had meantime lost none of his purpose to restore Roman Catholicism and to suppress Protestantism. His attitude caused such apprehension that England, Holland, and Denmark afforded the Protestants aid against the emperor. Ernst of VICTORY OF IN NORTHERN GERMANY. over Mansfeld, Christian of Braunschweig, George Frederick, Margrave of Baden, and Christian IV, king of Denmark, appeared in the field against the imperial aggressor. He now released FERDINAND II himself from the Catholic League and accepted the offer of Wallenstein (1625) to furnish and maintain an army of fifty thousand men in the emperor's service if he could have command and be recompensed from the spoils of the war. The emperor elevated Wallenstein to the position of an imperial prince, and the army invaded northern Germany. Maximilian sent his Catholic League army under Tilly, and soon came the Protestants. The Evangelicals were now to feel the power of the triumphant Romanists. In 1629 Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, according to which the foundations and spiritual lands of which the Protestants had taken possession were to be restored, the Roman Catholic spiritual lords were no longer to be hindered from converting their Protestant subjects, and the Calvinists were excluded from the benefits of the Religious Peace. This meant nothing less than the complete destruction of Protestantism, and prepared the way for the next and most interesting phase of the conflict. At the behest of Maximilian FerADOLPHUS TO dinand had dismissed Wallenstein, and the command GUSTAVUS THE RESCUE. once more fell upon Tilly (1630). The Protestants of Germany were doing nothing worthy of the situation. In fact, they were overawed by the power of the emperor. At this juncture Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, moved probably by the combined motives of political interest and religious sympathy with the German Protestants, entered upon the scene of action and saved Protestantism in the empire from destruction. Cardinal Richelieu, the farsighted French minister, jealous of the growing might of the Hapsburgs, and even the pope, furnished assistance. The fear that the emperor would take revenge held back the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony from adding their forces also, although later Saxony was glad to avail itself of the help of Gustavus. While they were hesitating Tilly completely destroyed Magdeburg. In the battles of Leipzig and Breitenfeld (1631) the allied imperial and league troops were defeated, and in the campaigns which followed Gustavus was everywhere victorious, while Tilly lost his life. On November 6, 1632, was fought the decisive battle of Lützen. Wal 1 The pope's part in the matter was occasioned by the dispute concerning the succession in Mantua. Gustavus pledged himself not to interfere with the Roman Catholic religion where he found it in vogue, and to govern himself in religious concerns according to the regulations acknowledged in the empire. |