judgment." It would make an amusing and im- question much stress has rightly been laid on the portant subject of inquiry, in what cases of phys- period of utero-gestation, as deciding the identity ical science, and yet more of morals and metaphys- or difference of species, we think sufficient imics, new terms might be adopted, with the effect portance has not been attached to the relation of removing doubts and closing controversies en- and adaptation of the sexes of each species to gendered by the faulty or fluctuating use of more one another. This remark very especially apancient names. It is manifest, however, that such plies to the bolder doctrine of transmutation of corrections must never be needlessly or arbitrarily species already discussed. A double transmumade, lest the ambiguity created be greater than tation would in every case be required, and with that removed. And as respects the term in ques- adaptations in every successive stage of change tion, though it has no etymological merits, we which it would defy any calculation of possible doubt whether any could be adopted, expressing chances to meet or explain. in a more convenient form the relation which it professes to describe.

With the impossibility of entering fully into this subject of species, we gladly avail ourselves of the summary which Sir C. Lyell has given, at the end of his 37th chapter, of the conclusions reasonably deduced from our actual knowledge of the conditions and changes of animal and vegetable life existing around us.

1st. There is a capacity in all species to accommodate themselves to a certain extent to a change of external circumstances, this extent varying greatly according to the species.

We cannot hesitate, then, in believing that the permanent individuality of species is the intention and general law of creation. We consider that the variations themselves of which species are rendered capable (doubtless for wise and sufficient purposes) do, by the limits imposed on their extent, express the same general law. And if objection be still taken to the immensity of the numbers of species thus presumed, we answer that he must be indeed an infant in physical science, who would limit the scope of creation by his own conceptions, or define the numbers therein employed by his own narrow use and comprehension of them.

2nd. When the change of situation they can endure is great, it is usually attended by some modifications of the form, color, size, structure, or other particulars; but the mutations thus superinduced it is otherwise. are governed by constant laws, and the capability of so varying forms part of the permanent specific

character.

3rd. Some acquired peculiarities of form, structure, and instinct, are transmissible to the offspring; but these consist of such qualities and attributes only as are intimately related to the natural wants and propensities of the species.

4th. The entire variation from the original type which any given kind of change can produce, may usually be effected in a short period of time, after which no further deviation can be obtained by continuing to alter the circumstances, though ever so gradually-indefinite divergence, either in the way of improvement or deterioration, being prevented, and the least excess beyond the defined limits being fatal to the existence of the individual.

Though we may seem again to have deserted our immediate subject, reflection will show that The physical history of man is based on the same general grounds as that of the rest of the animal creation. Man stands at the head; but in a physical sense he does so simply as the highest in a series of animal types, connected by close though perhaps unequal links, and subject to the same general laws determining He forms a genus to himself on every principle the origin, distribution, and variations of species. of just classification; and it is the conclusion of Prichard and his compeers that this genus differs from all other genera of the animal kingdom, in containing but one species. Still, we must hold it ever in view that Man is a part of the great scale of animal life; and we shall speedily see how many arguments and analogies may be drawn, as to all that regards his physical history, from those inferior forms of being which exist, for his uses or contemplation, in the world around him.

5th. The intermixture of distinct species is guarded against by the aversion of the individuals composing them to sexual union, or by the sterility of the mule offspring. It does not appear that true hybrid races have ever been perpetuated for several This is especially true as respects the inquiry generations, even by the assistance of man; for the to which we now come, having already in part cases usually cited relate to the crossing of mules premised our opinion upon it, viz., whether there with individuals of the pure species, and not to the be one species or more of the genus Man?— intermixture of hybrid with hybrid.

6th. From these considerations it appears that species have a real existence in nature, and that each was endowed, at the time of its creation, with the attributes and organization by which it is now distinguished.-Principles of Geology, 7th edit.,

p. 585.

These conclusions we believe to be valid in all essential points. We suspect if male and female juries of each species could be summoned upon the question of its distinct individuality, they would speedily return an affirmative verdict; and, perchance, with some surprise and amusement at the doubt submitted to them. While in arguing this

whether (to put the most cogent case in front) the perfect Negro and the perfect European, seeing the strong contrasts and diversities they exhibit, can be rightly deemed of the same species?—and whether, to explain other striking varieties in the races of men, it be needful to extend yet further this view of their specific differences? In discussing these points we must limit ourselves to the reasons best fitted to elucidate the conclusions obtained.

The question naturally first occurs—and it is a question which in its nature becomes an argument -if man be not a single species, how many spe

cies of the human being must we count on the seach condition includes a liability to such variaearth? The Negro is the most striking contrast tions, more or less, for every species; and it to the European ; but the beardless yellow Mon- would seem a general fact that this increases as golian also has characteristics so strongly marked, we rise upwards in the scale of animal life. In that we cannot concede the difference of species in the higher animals, and notably in man, this capaothe one case without admitting it in the other. ity for variation shows itself peculiarly in all that How, or where, are we to stop in these admis- regards the instincts, habits, and mental faculties, sions, when we find diversities alike in kind, and as modified by climate, food, culture, and other different only in degree, existing everywhere contingencies. In the phenomena more strictly of around us ; and determining those divisions into physical organization, a lesser amount of change races, of which some have retained the same dis- is likely to occur; yet here also (and it will soon tinctive characters from the earliest periods of his occur to us as an important point in the argutory? The question is further perplexed by the ment) the familiar experience of every one will inintermixture of races and varieties ; rendering it dicate to him innumerable such varieties, more difficult, if not impossible, to define any such prim- striking as the research is more extended and itive separation of origin, as the phrase of dif- minute. ferent species implies. Multiplicity, then, in this Taking these circumstances into account, our case becomes itself an argument for unity. No demand for proof of the identity of species will be lines of demarcation are found sufficiently strong limited to such conformity to the several criteria to render the plurality of species natural or prob- above stated as may be general-never admitting able. Every such line is traversed by others, more than a certain amount of deviation from the which, while effacing its distinctness, do all point common characters—the deviations themselves to a certain common origin-expressing in this alike in kind under like conditions, and prone to what we believe to be the unity of the species return to this primitive standard when the causes over the earth.

of change are removed. The latter phenomenon, This manner of putting the argument, how- strikingly attested by many well known facts in ever, though strong, is obviously not conclusive. natural history, will be at once felt as a cogent It is rendered much more forcible by a .regard argument for the unity of the species in which in detail to those conditions which may fitly be such variations occur, however widely they may considered as showing the identity or diversity alter the aspect of the races and breeds included of species; and, further, by analogies derived from under it. the variations of species in other parts of the Submitting the case of the human being to these animal creation. From these two sources, con- criteria, which have helped to solve the most curring in the evidence they afford, we derive doubtful questions as to other species, we may conclusions as certain as any that can be had in confidently say that an affirmative answer is dethose parts of physical science into which math- rived from all, as to the proper unity of Man. ematical proof does not enter.

In truth each point has been directly or silently And first, as to the criteria which best deter- conceded, except those which regard configuramine the identity or diversity of species—an in- tion, color, and certain other bodily peculiariquiry of singular interest in its connection with ties on the one hand, and on the other the equalthe physiology both of animal and vegetable life. ity of the mental endowments and capacities. On Limiting our present view to the former, and to these points discussions have been raised; and the part of the scale more approximate to man, with the effect, as we have before stated, of we may name the following conditions as those leading some inquirers to the persuasion that the which must mainly determine the result in each corporeal and mental diversities of the Negro and particular case :—the anatomical structure in all Caucasian cannot be explained otherwise than by its parts—the average duration of life—the re- supposing a difference of species—thus sanctionlation of the sexes and laws of propagation, ing the vague and uninstructed belief which the including the periods of utero-gestation and num- ignorant or interested have so often adopted as ber of progeny—the production, or otherwise, to this matter. It may be doubted whether this of hybrid progeny by mixed breeding—the lia- opinion, in its distinct form, has now many adbility to the same diseases—and the possession vocates ; and we might not think it needful to of the same instincts, faculties, and habits of dwell on the argument more minutely were it action and feeling. It will be readily admitted not that the reasonings apply almost equally to that wherever individuals or groups of beings that modified view before mentioned, which, withconcur as to these general conditions, there the out denying the identity of the species, affirms proof of identity of species is complete. But we that there were different pairs, of different primhave already alluded to that capacity for varia-itive types, placed separately on

the earth. tion within certain limits in each species, which Every argument, of course, which tends to show, may as justly be called a law of nature as the that one species is capable of undergoing the division into species itself; and we are in no in- variations actually found among mankind, must stance whatever entitled to expect entire conform- apply pro tanto to this latter doctrine also. ity to the several conditions stated above. Io Looking first, then, to the anatomical part of recurring to them hereafter it will be seen that the question—the characters most dwelt upon in

the discrimination of the different races of men | ars, all derived, as we have reason to believe, are the skeleton, and particularly the skull and from the Mongolian stock, present three gradapelvis—the stature-the color of the skin-and tions of change from the pyramidal to the ellipthe nature of the hair. In all the systems of tical type, and bearing proportion to the degree arrangement of these races, the figure of the skull of civilization attained by each. Again, we has formed a principal feature; the differences in have various testimony that the Negro head, so this structure-so important in the organ it en- strongly marked in its characters, is gradually closes-being such as are obvious to the most approximating to the European form, where succareless observer. The early researches and col- cessive generations of Negroes, without actual lections of Camper and Blumenbach have been intermixture, have been in constant communication since much extended, and new specimens of crania with European people and habits. obtained from various parts of the world, particu- As a particular feature of the cranium, the larly from the two American continents; to which facial angle, determining the relation of the line latter class the valuable investigations of Drs. of the forehead to that of the face, is a subject Warren and Morton have been especially directed. of interest, even to the most common observers, These new acquisitions have often proved impor- in its seeming connection with the intellectual tant in furnishing links between cranial forms development and expression. Its great diversity more widely dissociated to our previous knowledge. in different individuals is well known; and the Nevertheless the main differences are strongly enough marked to justify a division into races upon this character, though naturalists have not hitherto wholly agreed in that to be adopted. The one originally proposed by Blumenbach included five races-the Caucasian, Ethiopian, Mongolian, Malayan, and American-and this with little modification was long acquiesced in. The later researches of Dr. Prichard, founded on more ample materials, led him to reduce the chief types of cranial form, and the distinction of races founded thereon, to three only, which he characterizes, from their several peculiarities, as the prognathous, the pyramidal, and the oval or elliptical. The prognathous, or that marked by the predominance of the jaws, is the cranial type of the lower Negro and Australian races-the pyramidal crania, connected with broad, lozenge-formed faces, furnish a type common to the Mongolian or Tartar nations, the Laplanders, Esquimaux, Hottentots,ilies, and in races of mankind. The value of the and many of the American races-the oval or elliptical cranium expresses the form common to the Caucasian races and all the more highly civilized nations of the world.

a

causes.

the same or larger deviations in individuals or | The exuberance of the subject is such that we families as in races of men. Take, for example, can but give a slight indication of it here. the color of the skin, to which the latter class of Those who desire to pursue it further will find arguments chiefly applies, and the diversities of ample means of doing so in the many works of which are at least as prominent as those of figure. Natural History, Physiology, &c., which have The extreme contrasts in this case are the Negro lately appeared.* The main point in the arguand the Albino. The latter is clearly an acci- ment is this; that other species, and notably the dental variety ; but, as such, becomes, from its races of domesticated animals, exhibit varieties marked characters, a valuable exponent of all precisely of the same kind as those occurring in other varieties of color. That part of the struc- mankind much more extensive in degree-and ture of the skin, which is called the pigment-cell, in most cases derived from similar causes. The is evidently capable of undergoing great changes outline of this argument, as applied to the horse, in its secretions from climate, manner of life, and the dog, the ox, the hog, the sheep, the domestie those more mysterious causes connected with gen-fowl, &c., will be understood by every one. We eration and the hereditary transmission of bodily know, and regard without surprise, those vast features and peculiarities, the mighty influence of diversities of size, figure, color, habits of life, which we everywhere see, but which our igno- and even instincts of action, which distinguish rance makes it difficult yet to subject to particular the various breeds of these animals, separating laws. Time is manifestly an element of the them all more or less from what we may regard greatest importance here. The amount of change as the original stock of each species. It is only of which we have evidence, even within short indeed in certain instances that this primitive periods, is the proof of the capacity for far stock can be ascertained amidst the varieties that greater change where time is prolonged, and any have been impressed upon it; the best evidence particular community so placed as to be exposed being that of reversion to the original form in continually to the operation of the same physical those cases where the artificial conditions of do

mestication are altered or withdrawn. When to these considerations we add the par- Selecting one instance in illustration, let it be ticular evidences upon which we have already so the Dog—that singular animal, which Cicero well much dwelt, namely, the fact that nature produces affirms to be created for the especial uses of man. frequent varieties in all races as striking as are What is there in the diversities of the human species the extreme diversities amongst them; and, comparable to those which this animal exhibits in secondly, that there is an entire continuity in the size, in the form of the muzzle and cranium, in the gradations which occur in nature from one diver-color, quality, and quantity of its covering, in the sity to another, we present the argument in the sounds it utters, in its intelligence and habits of most complete form it can assume. Thus, 10 life? What more different in aspect than the bulltake a single but striking example of the first dog, the Newfoundland dog, the Cuba dog, the case-a Negro may have an Albino offspring pug-dog, and the greyhound? Yet we cannot without pigment-cells—a fact that includes at reasonably doubt (the dog itself, whatever its race, once all those minor varieties of color which are certainly does not doubt) the entire identity of the 80 familiar to us in the same community, and even species. It has been justly stated by M. F. Cuvier in the same family. The continuous gradations that if we begin to number the breeds of this ani-' of color from the Negro to the native of northern mal as species, we must count up to fifty at least. Europe, though less obvious to common knowl- A question still exists among naturalists whether edge, have been so well substantiated by travel- or not the wolf may be considered its original lers and men of science, that no remaining doubt type. This point-to be settled hereafter by more can exist on the subject. The same two methods exact knowledge of the utero-gestation of the wolf of argument (of which we are anxious that our and its hybrid relations to the dog-does in no readers should understand the full value) apply way affect the general argument. What concerns equally to the hair of the Negro; which, though us here is the amount of variation of which the called woolly, has been well ascertained to have species is capable, and the varieties actually prono relation to wool, and is found to graduate duced by nature or culture, and very especially by through a series of changes into the ordinary hair the intimate connection of the dog with the uses, of the European races, in one or other of the habits, and affections of man. These are the ilmany varieties which these races present. lustrations we seek for, and they are abundantly

The argument for the unity of the human furnished ; indicating not merely those changes species might perhaps be sufficient, even if it which are brought about in the individual by the ended here. But it is exceedingly strengthened conditions in which he is placed, but still more from a source to which we have more than once remarkably those which are transmitted to offspring, alluded, viz., the analogies presented by the in- and become more or less hereditary in its breeds. ferior species of animal life. We have already Going beyond this again, we find proof in the his said that man, physically considered, (and it must be added intellectually also,) is subject to this * Without any undue preference, we would refer to the questioning by analogy, and it is very pointedly copious writings of Dr. Carpenter on these subjects, as

distinguished by great ability, and very exact knowledge, true in the great question of species and varieties. brought down to the most recent time.

N

tory of the same animal, (whicn is made known to is nothing improbable in this view, when we reus even from mummies in the tombs of ancient gard the changes and diversities, actually existing Egypt,) of there being a limit speedily attained to around us. What we are called upon both by these deviations from a primitive type. And we reason and analogy to admit, is a line of ultimate have further authentic evidence that where dogs limit to such deviations, assigned doubtless to us, are removed from the homes and influence of man as to other created beings, by the great Creator they lapse again into a wild state, assume a common and Governor of the whole. form and color distinct from that of their domesticated state, and often even lose the power of barking, which some have supposed to be an acquired quality not natural to the species.* The dingo of Australia and the dhole of India are instances of such seeming relapse to a wild and more primitive

state.

We have hitherto spoken only of those physical conditions of the human being, by which we consider the unity of the species to be vindicated, and which go yet further to render probable the derivation of the whole from a single source. We must not let the argument stop here. The proof rises in value and certitude as we admit the intellectual Similar illustrations might be given from the and moral endowments of man into the question. other domestic animals we have named, but less It is very true that from this source, as well as striking as they become less intimately associated from physical configuration, arguments have been with man. They all offer examples of that re- drawn, and strongly insisted upon, by those who markable class of facts to which we have just al- maintain the specific inferiority of certain races. luded as a main element of the varieties of race- The mental faculties of the Negro in particular those, to wit, which regard the transmission from have been placed in pointed contrast with those of one generation to another of qualities or instincts the European; and the inference thenee derived artificially acquired, but which, so transmitted and that, whether individually or in communities, the maintained by use, tend to become hereditary in the former is incapable of reaching the intellectual breed. The extent to which this capacity for change standard of the latter, or an equal grade of civilproceeds the relative permanence of the changes ization in social life. The advocate for identity so induced the parts of structure or functions of species has been triumphantly called upon to most liable to them-the conditions favoring or produce instances from the Negro race of any high limiting their progress-these are all questions attainments in literature or philosophy; and, in infinitely curious and instructive, and still largely default of these, summary judgment has been taken open to future research. They are connected close-out against the whole race in question. ly, moreover, with the history and theory of anal- Now, on a subject of this kind, we must not be ogous variations in man—the manner of operation governed by mere words, however plausible or being similar, and the extent and limit of deviation sanctioned by common use. The term civilization defined by the same general laws. In these domes- is one of those vague generalities often applied tic species more especially, we have, in the manner for convenience or fashion, with very slender warin which certain acquired qualities become heredi-ranty of facts. How frequently is it defined and tary in particular breeds, an index to the formation tested by conditions belonging to our own usages, of races among mankind. The inquiry, so con- and which are totally inapplicable to other climates ducted, gains in value and importance when we or different circumstances of life! We talk much reflect on its relation to the future destinies of of civilized Europe, and, as matter of general comman; and see in this power of transmission of parison, the expression may be justified. acquired faculties, the possible element of new must not neglect the fact, that there are districts and higher conditions of our own species. There in Ireland-others, much larger, we could name *Every student of the natural history of the dog is in the very centre of France-which hardly rank bound to complete his education at Constantinople. Neg-in real civilization above many of the Negro comlecting the beauties of the Bosphorus, the mosques, se munities of Soudan. If we go into the great cities raglios, and kiosks, he will find ample scope for study in this great canine commonwealth, or rather group of reof the United States, New York, and Philadelphia, publics-for the Turkish capital is parcelled out into a comparison between the free Negro population districts by the dogs themselves, wholly irrespectively and the quarters peopled by Irish emigrants would, of the vast human population tenanting it, with which they have little other concern than as consumers of their we venture to say, be decidedly to the advantage of offal. The canine citizens of Constantinople have no the former. human masters, nor other home than its narrow, steep, and tortuous streets; but they live under certain munici pal regulations of their own, which it would be curious to investigate in detail. That which forbids any interloper of the species to enter other than his own district on pain of being devoured, seems a necessary effect of nunbers pressing hard on the means of subsistence. The dogs of Constantinople are a meagre, sullen, wolfish looking race, covered with scars and bruises from horses' hoofs, indolent from being ill-fed, seemingly careless of life or limb from the same cause. Basking under the mid-day sun, they scarcely move away from man or beast trampling upon them. The political economist, as well as the naturalist, might find many analogies and various materials for study in this great community of dogs, thus strangely insulated from man in the midst of human multitudes.

But we

eminent advancement in literature and science. We are asked for examples of some Even were the demand reasonable on other grounds, seeing the condition under which the Negro has hitherto been placed, we should meet it by asking for similar examples of native growth among the forty millions of Selavonian race who people the vast plains of European Russia. We might variously multiply instances to the same effect, but we prefer resting the case upon what we believe to be an assured fact, viz., that where Negro communities have been associated with European races through a series of generations, their capacities and habits